The Roman Empire lasted ten centuries, and the length and extent of this reign made it difficult to trace how the civilization started and ended. Since it was an ancient Rome post-republican period, the polity comprised large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in North Africa, Europe, and Western Asia and was under different emperors (Morley, 2010). The empire was principate with Italy from when Caesar ascended to power as the first Roman Emperor to the third-century military anarchy. The empire’s long endurance and vast extent resulted in a lasting and profound influence on how different governments developed their law, art, language, and many more cultures. At the peak of the Mongol Empire, there were up to 12 million square miles under its control (May, 1998). The empire emerged from several nomadic Mongol tribes’ unifications under Genghis Khan, and despite the brutal warfare associated with the empire, there was stability, peace, trade, and protected travels. The Roman and Mongol Empires were massive: however, the vastness and expansion of these empires were strongly due to their military power.
Social and Economic Structures
The first economic peak under the Roman Empire came three centuries after Caesar when the empire enjoyed economic prosperity and growth. However, soon after, the empire suffered a severe decline and crisis, resulting in emperor Diocletian believing that enacting coordinated series of measures would help save the economy of the empire (Morley, 2010). The process of enacting coordinated series of measures happened in resource depletion and environmental deterioration leading to profound economic impacts on the Roman economic activity (Morley, 2010). The Roman Empire economy was organized to benefit the society’s upper strata: landlords, the rich, and the masters. The peasants, the poor, and the enslaved people provided the essential labor force for the success of the economic activities in the empire (Carpini, n.d.). Economic and power benefits were centered in the emperor’s office, the emperors were responsible for controlling a separate treasury, and his edicts operated under the military power.
Further, the emperors influenced the economic structures, and with that came the environmental impact experienced during the reign of the Roman Empire. However, how the Romans understood economic policies were restricted, and therefore, there were absent environmental policies (Carpini, n.d.). Despite their understanding of environmental policies, the Roman Empire taxed its people, mostly the poor and the peasants, to help run the empire. Similar to the Roman Empire, how the Mongols understood environmental policies was limited. Moreover, the Mongols demanded empire support by the people, and with this, there was levy gathering from territories and cities the martial power allowed the empire to have supremacy over (May, 1998). The taxes were paid in different measures throughout the empire and enforced by the reign’s military influence.
On the contrary, the Mongol Empire supplemented its economy through raiding and trade. Compared to the Romans, the Mongols never established merchant status. Animal trading was normal alongside hides, and fur for cloth, silk, tea, grain, and factory-made products between them and trading companies from Russia and China (van Ruysbroeck, 2004). Furthermore, the Mongols drifted from raising goats, sheep, camels, cattle, and horses to trading sheep, which had the highest market value. Genghis Khan insisted that booty was to be centrally gathered and distributed equally. Different clerks and local officials were responsible for running the cities and keeping economic activity records (May, 1998). However, once Genghis Khan died, the regional Mongol leaders began to tax their residents, and the dealers kept the booty for themselves in place of distributing it. Every male herder in the empire had to spend part of their time working the system. Through record-keeping, conducted in Ulgar script, written communication provided insight into how the empire taxed merchants based on their transactions (van Ruysbroeck, 2004).
Gender Roles, Ideals, and Relationships
The Roman’s social understanding of women, and their roles in society, were majorly influenced by their standing. Since the Roman tradition was patriarchal, the status a woman held was mostly determined by that of the men in their lives (Morley, 2010). However, this only applied to women whose families were landlords, rich, and masters. Gender roles, ideals, and relationships of these women were directly related to their fathers before marriage, their husbands during the marriage, and their sons once widowed (Morley, 2010). Moreover, if any relationship existed, then the presence of a male guardian dictated the relationships, ideals, and roles of the women among the Romans. With this, the women were subject to the class their men belonged to; however, their participation in legal and political affairs was limited, translating to no female magistrates or senators (Carpini, n.d.).
Women would be citizen class; however, they were not citizens. There were empresses, for example, empress Augusta, but that was only made possible by the position of the emperor (Carpini, n.d.). Through or on behalf of their men and husbands, upper-class women would have or wield considerable economic and political power (Morley, 2010). Moreover, the lawful position of women was withheld by the law, females and young ladies were constantly under the authority of men, and their independence was restricted under a male-controlled society. As already established, that could be a father, husband, or a legally appointed guardian (Carpini, n.d.). According to Roman law, women were to be passed from one male control to another during their lives. Nevertheless, despite their lower status, mothers in the Roman Empire were held solid household stature, played a noteworthy role in children’s tutoring and raising, and kept daily domestic activities. Poor women worked equally hard as the men in their lives, and their lives were insignificantly different from their men’s.
Like the Romans, the Mongols’ society was patriarchal, and the men were dominant in both empires. However, compared to Roman women, Mongol women enjoyed more freedom and power (May, 1998). They were allowed to participate in battles, ride horsebacks, and tend their herds. Another significant role played by the Mongol women, unlike those in the Roman Empire as they had a significant influence on the important decisions that impacted the Mongol Empire (May, 1998). While the women in the Roman Empire were restricted to children’s instruction and nurture and upheld daily household practices, Mongol women were highly appreciated contributors within their societies. Despite their gender roles and ideals being less than that of their male counterparts, they had the freedom to decide to participate in battles, tend their herds, and help in the decision-making process.
While the responsibility of preparing food, milking the animals, making cheese and clothes, and raising the gers were meant for the Mongol women, they did not formally educate their children as the Roman women did. Children from the Mongol Empire learned about their roles and work from their family members, and both men and women were responsible for the children’s upbringing (May, 1998). While there were empresses in the Roman Empire, for example, Empress Augusta, courtesy of the men’s position in the society, the Mongol women were powerful decision-makers. For example, Sorkhaqtani, Tolui’s wife, son of Genghis Khan, was a consultant to Ogodai, Tolui’s brother, when Ogodai became khan (van Ruysbroeck, 2004).
With the death of Tolui, Sorkhaqtani then went along to become the head of her family, and influenced her sons’ lives, which led to their instruction where they were educated about the languages they were required to know as domain leaders (van Ruysbroeck, 2004). Further, after Ogodai died, Sorkhaqtani kept the Mongol Empire together through tactful means while Guyuk was khan (van Ruysbroeck, 2004). Furthermore, Sorkhaqtani directed concerning trade opening, stressed religious autonomy, instituted logical exchanges within the empire, and directed the corresponding khans that subjugated people should not be oppressed in perilous ways (van Ruysbroeck, 2004).
Religious and Ethnic Beliefs
The Roman and Mongol Empires had several things in common when perceived from religious and ethnic lenses. First, the two empires had ethnic and religious diversity during their reign. Trade and mobility evident in the empires were responsible for the interactions among people from different regions, either surrounding the empires or colonized by them (Morley, 2010). Second, both empires embraced polytheistic religion, which was made possible by their respective civilizations. For example, in the Roman Empire, despite monotheistic religions like Christianity and Judaism, the Romans honored different deities introduced to the people by different worship practices (Morley, 2010). The Mongol Empire was primarily shamanistic but diversified to include Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, Confucianism, and Taoism (May, 1998). In addition to observing their respective faiths, the people were expected to pray to whichever gods they believed.
However, the ethnic beliefs of the Mongols differed from those of the Romans. The Mongols believed burying their dead with their possessions and weapons was an indication of the existence of an afterlife (van Ruysbroeck, 2004). They held strong that an individual’s possession, social status, and profession would continue after death. That is why after Genghis Khan died, 40 horses and 40 concubines accompanied him to his tomb (May, 1998). Moreover, they believed in reading signs and relied on the guidance of powerful animal spirits to travel with them between different universe layers. The Romans considered themselves a cultural group largely influenced by the Greek and Etruscan civilizations (May, 1998). Unlike the Mongols, the Romans had no enforced or fixed beliefs about the afterlife; most people believed the deceased lived on in the underworld (May, 1998). That was influenced by Roman’s different ethnic practices allowed by the presence of different groups from the conquered regions.
The Roman and Mongol Empires were massive, and due to their military power, they conquered vast regions and dominated for several years. Their power was responsible for gender. Roles, ideals, relationships, social and economic structures, and religious and ethnic beliefs. The two empires were different and similar in several ways. As illustrated in the essay, one way the two were similar was that both had patriarchal and the men were dominant, and on the issue of gender roles, the Mongol women had a great influence on how the empire was run, unlike the Roman women.
Technological Innovations and Culture
During the Mongol Empire, the people enjoyed religious and trade freedom. They adopted advanced technology of the time through their development of composite bows, gunpowder, stirrups, and leather armor (van Ruysbroeck, 2004). Further, the Mongols enjoyed other technological advancements in regions such as medicine, mathematics, and printing technology. One similarity with the Roman Empire was the use of medicine. However, compared to the Mongols, the Romans invented different surgical tools responsible for the use of cesarean section, which came under the battlefield (Morley, 2010). The level of military medicine in the Roman Empire was so advanced in promoting wellness and wound treatment, which enabled their soldiers to live longer unlike average citizens.
References
Carpini, G. D. (n.d.). The destruction of Kiev. The University of Toronto. Web.
May, P. H. (1998). Internet History Sourcebooks. Web.
Morley, N. (2010). The Roman Empire: Roots of imperialism. London: Pluto Press.
van Ruysbroeck, W. (2004). William of Rubruck’s Account of the Mongols. Depts.washington.edu. Web.