Introduction
There are many types of inequalities evoking the concerns of scholars, and one of them is related to gender. Its investigation has shown that it still exists in the present-day society while it has definitely changed its form (Amis et al. 2018). The perceived male and female occupations play a significant role in the lives of people affecting their decisions not in favor of such considerations as natural preferences and other psychological factors. Therefore, this paper aims to present the current status of the issue while evaluating the importance of ideologies and institutions, masculine and feminine norms, racialization of gender, and sexism deriving from it.
The Role of Ideologies and Institutions in Gender Inequality
The effects of institutions on the phenomenon of reproducing and maintaining gender inequality can be seen in the organizational context. The researchers claim that the traditional approach to this topic implied the division of workers on the basis of this characteristic (Amis et al. 2018). Thus, for example, the first studies on management emphasized only women “with exceptional educational qualifications and talent,” whereas men were not limited in this regard (Amis et al. 2018:1138). The shift in the attitudes from the subordinate position for women to the explanation of differences by preferences did not improve the situation (Amis et al. 2018). Therefore, such institutions as companies still present a threat to this disadvantaged population group.
Another factor affecting the situation with gender inequality is the presence of ideologies. They can be seen in education and, more specifically, in the choices, beliefs, and subject preferences of students (van der Vleuten et al. 2016). However, the researchers claim that the outcome of this area’s perception through the lens of gender inequality is more severe for boys rather than for their female classmates (van der Vleuten et al. 2016). Thus, girls tend to shape beliefs regarding their competencies, whereas male students try to avoid the common feminine careers such as teaching (van der Vleuten et al. 2016). In this way, gender ideology plays a significant role in the professional lives of people and maintains existing inequality.
Contemporary Norms and Traits Associated with “Masculinity” and “Femininity”
There is a number of contemporary norms, which are usually associated with the socially constructed traits of “masculinity” and “femininity.” They are connected to the gender stereotype theory, according to which men and women are perceived as more masculine and more feminine, respectively (Kachel, Steffens, and Niedlich 2016). These norms can be measured with the help of various tools, and one of them is the Traditional Masculinity-Femininity (TMF scale) (Kachel et al. 2016). In this way, the self-ascribed qualities of an individual can define his position on the scale and, therefore, the degree of masculinity and femininity.
The contemporary norms included in such assessment instruments represent the two extremes. From this perspective, men are supposed to be independent in their actions, competent in the sphere they are engaged in, and competitive (Kachel et al. 2016). Hence, their description corresponds to the image of a perfect employee or manager. As for women, they are believed to possess such characteristics as warmth, a tendency for communion, and expressiveness (Kachel et al. 2016). From this point of view, females are seen as the people oriented on others and relationships with them.
Institutions Supporting the Norms and Traits
The prevalence of allegedly masculine or feminine traits in a person is contrasted by contemporary social norms and defines the attitudes of other people. This situation is complicated by the support they receive from specific institutions, such as schools or businesses. As can be seen from the organizational perceptions, the typical masculine traits mentioned above are crucial for one’s career (Amis et al. 2018). Due to their seeming importance for professional growth, women are blamed for not having such qualities as assertiveness (Amis et al. 2018). As a result, the present-day companies intend to change people instead of allowing them to be themselves and appreciating the significance of communion during negotiations.
Another example of institutions instilling their norms in people is schools and other educational facilities. They attempt to guide their students on the grounds of what occupations correspond to men or women instead of providing support in the development of their unique personalities (van der Vleuten et al. 2016). As a result, male students might select the wrong occupations or risk not being accepted in the workplace as valuable specialists since the preference will be given to their female peers (van der Vleuten et al. 2016). This policy allows including them in the list of entities, which maintain the common social norms in terms of gender.
Racialization of “Masculinity” and “Femininity” in the US
The dominant notions of masculinity and femininity in the United States are primarily racialized through the preferences of people regarding their partners. The studies devoted to this subject demonstrated the reproduction of gender racial hierarchies by same-sex daters. Thus, the researchers proved that Asian, Latino, and Black population groups are more likely to select white partners than representatives of their communities (Rafalow, Feliciano, and Robnett 2017). What is more important, the white masculinity plays a decisive role in the process of partner selection (Rafalow et al. 2017). This outcome is significantly affected by the norms related to masculine traits, and this consideration is as vital for people as social status (Rafalow et al. 2017). It allows concluding on the intersection of perceived gender norms and race.
The Support for Sexism and Racism
The phenomenon of intersecting racial and gender characteristics contributes to maintaining both sexism and racism in the country. It can be examined through the lens of discrimination experienced by teenagers. The study conducted by Roberts, Tamene, and Orta (2018) showed that 40.1% of participants experienced issues resulting from their race and gender, and 93% of them faced dating violence based on the same reasons (p. 257). From this perspective, Black females represent the most vulnerable population group (Roberts et al.). Moreover, the cases of violence against them evoke a wider public resonance in the case if an abuser is a Black male (Roberts et al.). Taking into consideration the results regarding the role of gender and race in interactions with others, it can be concluded that the attitudes of people towards this combination maintain sexism and racism in the country.
Conclusion
To summarize, the situation with gender inequalities in American society presents a challenge for specialists studying this phenomenon. Their initiative aimed at eliminating these issues meet resistance from the majority of educational facilities and businesses. The former’s ideology in this respect is connected to the existence of typical male or female jobs. In turn, the latter’s position is based on the preference of men as managers due to the presence of such qualities as assertiveness, independence, and competitiveness. This situation leads to changes in people’s perceptions and maintains sexism and racism in the country. When complemented by racialization of gender reflected in the seeming attractiveness of white men compared to their peers from other ethnic groups, it remains one of the leading social problems of the United States.
References
Amis, John M., Kamal A. Munir, Thomas B. Lawrence, Paul Hirsch, and Anita McGahan. 2018. “Inequality, Institutions and Organizations.” Organization Studies 39(9): 1131-1152.
Kachel, Sven, Melanie C. Steffens, and Claudia Niedlich. 2016. “Traditional Masculinity and Femininity: Validation of a New Scale Assessing Gender Roles.” Frontiers in Psychology 7.
Rafalow, Matthew H., Cynthia Feliciano, and Belinda Robnett. 2017. “Racialized Femininity and Masculinity in the Preferences of Online Same-Sex Daters.” Social Currents 4 (4): 306-321.
Roberts, Lynn, Mahader Tamene, and Olivia R. Orta. 2018. “The Intersectionality of Racial and Gender Discrimination Among Teens Exposed to Dating Violence.” Ethnicity & Disease 28 (Suppl 1): 253-260.
Van der Vleuten, Maaike, Eva Jaspers, Ineke Maas, and Tanja van der Lippe. 2016. “Boys’ and Girls’ Educational Choices in Secondary Education. The Role of Gender Ideology.” Educational Studies 42 (2): 181-200.