Racial discrimination is a critical issue that has attracted the attention of the general public a long time ago and is still discussed by numerous professionals in such spheres as history and politics. Blair Kelley also revealed her interest in this topic. She wrote a book titled Right to Ride: Streetcar Boycotts and African Citizenship in the Era of Plessy v. Ferguson. It discusses African American efforts to overcome segregation laws. In particular, the focus on trains and streetcars division is made. The events that took place in the early Jim Crow era are described. The Plessy v. Ferguson decision and the streetcar boycott movement are mainly considered. The author reveals the history of the early 20th century through the stories of people who experienced violence associated with segregation and attempts to stop it. The book is focused on three main settings: New Orleans, Richmond, and Savannah.
All in all, the book consists of an introduction and eight chapters that reveal various events connected to the racial segregation about transport. In the very beginning, the author points out the background of the book and hints at what will be discussed in it. She emphasizes that African Americans participated in several boycott campaigns and includes information from the article written by August Meier and Elliot Rudwick. Kelley describes how black communities divided because of different beliefs and social classes. The development of urban transportation and threats to racial order is discussed.
In the first chapter of the book, Kelley (2010) outlines the causes of Jim Crow segregation, explaining that it “began long before Plessy and far from the trains of New Orleans” (p. 15). Nevertheless, she adds that its population tried to contest unfair conditions, which led to further boycotts. It is also mentioned that the Creoles of color and African Americans had different views on race and class.
The second chapter traces the history of the contest further. The author emphasizes the fact that not only men were involved in these actions. Females were extremely active, for example, “black women were leaders in the fight against railroads” (Kelley, 2010, p. 42). In particular, they were outraged by the fact that the government insisted on the provision of “equal, but separate, accommodations for the white and colored races” (Davis, 1896, p. 540). At the same time, segregation was worsened by the fact that first-class and second-class cars were acceptable for people of the same race, which divided African Americans. This extreme division run “the slavery argument into the ground” (Davis, 1896, p. 543).
The third chapter passes to the case Plessy v. Ferguson, “when Homer Plessy, an octoroon (a person having one-eighth African ancestry), refused to leave a whites-only railroad car and was convicted of violating the law” (Shi & Brown, 2015, p. 598). Moreover, it reveals the existence of two groups of African Americans, as people in New Orleans divided into protest organizations. Some represented the American Citizens Equal Rights Association and others belonged to the Citizens’ Committee, representing the Creole elite and recently freed slaves.
The fourth chapter reveals that African Americans were still not willing to accept “regulations requiring racial segregation,” known as Jim Crow (Shi & Brown, 2015, p. 599). As they treated streetcars as a vital part of commerce and culture, the streetcar boycott movement “became a measure of black New Orleans’s collective spirit” (Kelley, 2010, p. 88).
The fifth chapter explores the debate between the leaders of the African American community of Richmond. “A conference of colored citizens” elected representatives “to adopt the protest against the law”; these were Maggie Walker and John Mitchell (Kelley, 2010, p. 121). They discussed whether elite or lower-class whites were involved in the development of segregation. Moreover, they wanted to identify if the lower-class black culture promoted this movement.
The sixth chapter reveals that those African Americans “who had moved to streetcar suburbs” believed this system to be critical for them, as they provided “access to all city wards” (Kelley, 2010, p. 140; Shi & Brown, 2015, p. 633). Moreover, this transport remained the only element that was not affected by segregation. As a result, it provided African Americans with the opportunity to believe that “the law in the States shall be the same for the black as for the white” (Davis, 1896, p. 556). That is why the further segregation of streetcars led to increased opposition. Fortunately, this issue was resolved and desegregation was eventually achieved, but numerous attempts to restore transport segregation were made.
The seventh chapter points out that “widespread violence accompanied the creation of Jim Crow laws” was revealed even during the parade on Emancipation Day (Shi & Brown, 2015, p. 599). As African Americans were presented as a threat and attacks on “Savannah’s black servicemen” were conducted, they started battling those Americans who supported Jim Crow (Kelley, 2010, p. 166). On the contrary, some of their actions were more peaceful, as they “responded by turning inward and strengthening their social institutions, demanding the restoration of their civil rights” (Shi & Brown, 2015, p. 622).
The eights chapter emphasizes the fact that the protest was unabated. The representatives of media encouraged their readers to support those opinions they believed to be the best for the whole population. In this framework, Booker claimed that African Americans should not stop fighting for equality, which made him “the nation’s most prominent African American leader” (Shi & Brown, 2015, p. 601). However, Davis opposed his belief and encouraged all people to accept Jim Crow. Nevertheless, African Americans continued fighting for their rights. Boycotts began over and over, and various actions were taken to support blacks. Unfortunately, these attempts were not successful, but they all mattered.
Based on the information obtained from this book, it can be claimed that at the beginning of the 20th century African Americans did their best to fight racial segregation and make the whole population of the United States equal. Kelley’s re-examination of this period provides readers with an opportunity to find out how previous attempts to overcome injustice affected the current situation in the country even though they were not successful.
It contributes to the understanding not only of the discussed boycotts but of the whole Civil Rights Movement. Proving an opportunity to acknowledge a lot of details regarding the opposition to Jim Crow, Kelley allows readers to understand what the triggers of African Americans’ actions were. For example, she points out what made them react formally and what made them start treating whites. It is also extremely interesting to find out that Americans were led by the newspaper publishers to some degree. It was easy for them to reach the population and encourage them to act in the desired way. All in all, it can be concluded that the Right to Ride is a great contribution to the historiography of opposition between Americans of different races and social classes.
References
Davis, B. (1896). Cases adjudged in the Supreme Court at October term, 1895. United States reports, 163, 1-740.
Kelley, B. M. (2010). Right to ride: Streetcar boycotts and African American citizenship in the era of Plessy v. Ferguson. Chapel Hill, CA: The University of North Carolina Press.
Shi, D. E., & Brown, G. (2015). America: The essential learning edition. Volume 2. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company.