Introduction
The African American leadership refers to the leadership in the American states by the African American people. This has for a long time been an issue in the American continent especially due to the issue of inequality. Racism has been the main hindrance to the achievement of the same. This is one of the main reasons that led to the African American fight for freedom especially in terms of civil rights. It is during that period that the movements to fight for civil rights were launched. These movements fought for the rights of African Americans especially in terms of their right to vote. During this time, they were not allowed to vote or even take part in the process of choosing leaders or any form of leadership (Mabel, 2010). Therefore, many studies have been done, many books as well as journals have been written which prove that the fight for civil rights by the African American people led to the evolvement of the present African American leaders in American states.
Literature Review
Article 1: Intended for the better governance of man”: The political History of African American Freemasonry in the era of emancipation.
The article is written by Kantrowitz (2010). It was published in Bloomington. This article focuses on the fight for the African Americans to also hold leadership positions. It shows how the issue of the Masonic life controlled the way in which the people understood the importance as well as the efforts of developing the leadership. It deals with an event that took place in the year 1840 in which a man by the name of Fredrick Douglas fought towards enabling the African American people to pay or show more respect to the political organizations which were concerned with the fight against slavery. He argued that the resources that are being wasted on the process of having celebrations or even holding some meetings for freemasonry would instead be used in holding meetings to express the needs of his people to the rest of the world. He argued that the best leadership is the one that teaches people how to be independent and not the one that teaches people to be dependent on their leaders. This actually explains why he was very much against the issue of freemasonry. However, later in the years, the African American freemasonry became very instrumental in bringing up the African leaders in the American states. This is because the freemasonry group gave the African Americans a platform to air their views as well as show their discontentment with the way in which leadership and politics were conducted in America by the whites.
This enabled the African Americans through enlightenment from their own leader to come to understand that they are not slaves of the whites. Frederick Douglas was not only involved in abolitionist activities which culminated in the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 but also served in several political positions until he died in 1895.
Article 2: Towards the meeting of the waters: currents in the civil rights movements of South Carolina during the twentieth century.
The book is written by Moore & Burton (2008). It was published by the University of South Carolina Press. This is a book that contains some of the political issues which were dominating the political arena in America during the twentieth century. It covers the struggle of the African American people to achieve their freedom from slavery and the resistance that they experienced from the Whites during the mid-1860s. The Whites were very much opposed to their fight for their racial freedom. The struggle for the African Americans was dominated by challenges like deaths through murder and also some aspects of economic coercion. However, this led to great number of American Africans being liberated to vote. Some of the methods that have been reported in the journal that was used to fight the issue of racism include the implementation of policies in schools that were meant to overlook the issue of racism. Through that, many of the African American children were able to access good education in any college or school of their choice. Also, there were African Americans who got a chance to lead the American schools. This enabled the African American students who schooled in such schools to enjoy some economic benefits. The article’s discovery is very important in trying to explain the African American race relationship as far as the leadership in different fields is concerned in the state of South Carolina.
Article 3: The journal of southern history
The article is written by Baldwin (2010) and published in Athens, University of Oxford press. The article talks about Martin Luther King Junior and his dream to become a king or a leader in the American state. He was one of the African Americans who painfully bore the discrimination that the African Americans went through during his lifetime due to the issue of racism. It describes the efforts of Martin Luther to fight for the rights of African Americans for leadership during the late 1950s and early 1960s. During this time, Martin Luther King Junior gave a speech in which he described his dream whereby one time there will be an African American leader ruling the continent of America. It also covers a number of sermons that he gave during the time he was alive. A number of issues evolved as a result of his continued speeches and sermons. The African Americans experienced a lot of struggles in terms of social and political discrimination. It was during that time that a number of them were assassinated and also social discrimination increased. There emerged different churches and schools for people on the basis of their race. In addition to that, there were streets and shopping malls for the Americans and for African Americans. In his speeches and sermons, Martin Luther was trying to put an across point that one day there shall be equality in America such that even the African Americans shall be leaders of the states. His contribution was very important. The article has tried to show that in actual sense, what Martin Luther dreamt about has actually happened. This is symbolized by the fact that currently the President of the United States of America, Barack Obama is an African American.
Article 4: The racial identity of Adam Clayton Powell Jr.: A case study in racial ambivalent and redefinition
This is an article that was written by Rushing (2010). It was published in New York. The article talks about one African American man by the name of Powel who in the 1960s fought for the rights of the African Americans especially as far as equality is concerned. He was the chairperson of the Labor Committee and House Education. He used his political influence to achieve that. Being one of the few existing African American leaders during that time when there were a lot of inequalities going on, he was very determined to fight tooth to nail for the equality of his people. He was actually following in the footsteps of Martin Luther King Junior. He was very much against the way in which the white leaders treated the African Americans with contempt. His contribution led to the empowerment of most the African Americans. This in turn enabled them to take up leadership positions. This was after the fight for their civil rights whereby the African Americans were accorded the right to vote as well as to get involved in politics through the enactment of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. His efforts really contributed a lot to the current leadership in the United States of America. This is because currently the fruits of his labor can be seen through the leadership of the current President Barack Obama. Also, it is very evident that even the African American people have what it takes to lead the states of America.
Article 5: Racial conflict in the forest city: the trial and triumph of moderation in the Arkansas delta town
This article is written by Deaderick (2010). The article deals with the racial discrimination that was experienced by the African Americans in the years between 1969 and 1970. This was after the signing of the civil rights legislation. The then most prominent and very powerful leader of a bank in Forest city, Mr. W. Campbell, argued that such legislation was just but a plan by the African Americans to show their dissatisfaction with the town’s progress. In actual sense, the African Americans were very tired of the way issues were being delayed concerning the cases in the court. They felt that some of their rights were denied on the basis of racism. It was during this particular time that the Whites were economically benefiting from the whole situation. This is because the African Americans were forced to pay more than they should in order for their cases to be settled by the courts. This made them see even a greater need for having African American leaders in the courts that would also accord them their rights. During this period, they openly showed their dissatisfaction in the way things were done and also with the progress of their town as long as the white remained their leaders. As a result of that, many of the African Americans took their position of leadership as mayors in the town. This actually led to a very amazing result. The town was no longer occupied with the African Americans only but also the Americans joined them.
Article 6: Diverse issues in higher education
This is an article written by Feintuch (2010). This article deals with the Todd Anthony Bell National Resource Center on the African American Male. This is a center that was put forth in 2001 to provide an opportunity for the African American males to learn about leadership in the higher education institutes. This article shows the outcome of services that were initially provided after the founder of the center died. This is because the African males got a better opportunity to get education. A story of one man named Hatchette is told. Despite the fact that he never had any finances to cater for his education, he still went through with the education. This was because of the fact that the leadership of the institution was entrusted to an African American. It is in this institute that the male students of African origin are taught how to be good leaders. Their education status is greatly improved in an effort to fit the standards of the white males. Through that, the African males also get empowered to be able to compete for the same posts as the whites.
According to a study that was done in that institute compared to the other institutes, it was discovered that there were 47% African American males who were graduating compared to the 5% of the African Americans who were graduating in the rest of the institutes. This led to the launch of an investigation to find out why very few males were graduating in other institutes in comparison to the Todd Anthony Bell National Resource Center on the African American Male. After that event, a program was launched in an effort to find out the problems of the male students as well as to help them with their challenges.
Article 7: Reflections on leadership from the perspective of an African American woman of faith
The article is written by Walker (2009) and published by Advances in Developing Human Resources in San Francisco. The article focuses on the aspect of religion and leadership of African American women. It is centered on their experiences in getting involved in organizations predominated by the whites. It is the writer who is actually giving her own experience on how her faith has enabled her to cope with the challenges as she embarks on leadership that concerns the social-cultural issues like gender disparities and racism. She has described very well how her faith contributed much in enabling her to cope with any kind of challenge. This article’s contents have been very helpful to the African American women in that they have had a chance to learn that through one’s faith, they can greatly draw strength to lead and to persevere.
Article 8: Bringing the voices together
The article is written by Byrd and Stanley (2009) and was published in San Francisco. The article tries to bring out the realities in terms of social-cultural challenges facing the African American women leaders in their positions as leaders mainly in white organizations. Some of the challenges that were faced by the African American women are racism, gender disparities and most predominant the social classes. These challenges affected their leadership very much such that despite one being leader her voice could never be heard as long as she is an African American leader. However, this issue was overcome by empowering women through education. In this modern world, there are so many white-predominated organizations that are actually led by women. Also, some of the social-cultural theories which emerged at that time have enabled the whole world to be enlightened about the issue of social-cultural differences. This has also enabled very helpful but silent voices to be heard.
Article 9: Borrowed power
The article is written by Petitt (2009) and was published by the Advances in Developing Human Resources in San Francisco. The writer shows how the African American women leaders are not empowered to perform their duties well because of the social-cultural challenges that they go through. This is explained by the fact that much of the control, organization’s reality shaping, and also policy formulation are done by the whites. This leaves them without any platform to exercise their leadership in those organizations that they lead. The writer, once being a leader in a white predominated organization, discusses her own experience as a leader in a white predominated higher education institute in terms of the challenges she faced as she went about her leadership duties. The article shows the African American women leaders that challenges have to be there but one has to take authority and stick to what she believes. It also shows that women, despite the fact that they are referred to as the weaker sex, can still portray excellent leadership qualities. Some of the recommendations the writer gives to deal with such challenges include the advancement of the social-cultural theories. This will give the world a better perspective of the fact that even African American women can make great leaders.
Conclusion
It is very evident from the articles described above that African American leaders had a lot of challenges in the earlier days. Some of these challenges include racism and discrimination based on social classes, gender inequality and also the level of education (Mary, 2002). However, according to several studies that have been done, there is proof that the fight for civil rights by the American African people has led to the evolvement of the present African American leaders in the American states. This is because African Americans have been able to achieve equality in all areas of life hence being able to take up leadership positions. This fact is well illustrated by the President of the United States Barack Obama, the first African American to occupy the seat. Nevertheless, challenges remain particularly as far as the leadership of African American women is concerned.
Reference List
- Baldwin, L. (2010). Becoming King: Martin Luther King Junior and the making of a national leader. The Journal of southern history, 76 (2), 500-502.
- Bird, M., & Stanley, C. (2009). Bringing the voices together. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 11 (5), 657.
- Deaderick, M. (2010). Racial conflict in the forest city: the trial and triumph of moderation in the Arkansas delta Town. Forrest Girouard Briefs, 69 (1), 1.
- Feintuch, H. (2010). The Anthony Bell African Male Resource Center. Diverse: Issues in Higher Education, 30 (3), 1.
- Kantrowitz, S. (2010). Intended for the better Governance of man: The political History of African American Freemasonry in the era of emancipation. The Journal of American History, 96 (4), 1001-1027.
- Mabel, A. (2010). American Leaders. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Union.
- Mary, L. (2002). Cold war civil rights: race and the image of American democracy. New York: John Wiley & sons.
- Moore, W., & Burton, O. (2008). Towards the meeting of the waters: currents in the civil rights movements of South Carolina during the twentieth century. Columbia: The University of South Carolina Press.
- Petitt, B. (2009). Borrowed power. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 11 (5), 633.
- Rushing, L. (2010). The racial identity of Adam Clayton Powell Jr.: A case study in racial ambivalence and redefinition. Afro-Americans in New York Life and History, 43 (34), 1.
- Walker, S. (2009). Reflections on leadership from the perspective of an African American woman of faith. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 11 (5), 646-656.