Introduction
There have been growing tensions between the Sunni and Shia Islamic group for over fourteen centuries. The two sects have co-existed peacefully for many years and have similar beliefs regarding the Qur’an and Prophet Muhammad. However, there are sharp divisions regarding their doctrines, theology, law, rituals, and particularly the leadership structure. Over the years, the two sects have constantly clashed in the struggle of the Islamic leadership; therefore, the growing rift can be considered more political than spiritual. The Sunni group forms the Muslim majority while the Shia is the minority. The difference in leadership ideologies is the main cause of the split between the Sunni and Shia Islamic sects.
History of Divide
The split between the Sunnis and Shias emerged after the death of Prophet Muhammad in 632, following the lack of consensus on the most suitable successor. One faction that comprised early and ardent followers of Islam supported the election of Abu Bakr, a close companion of Muhammad as the first caliph (Chitwood). However, the opposing faction proposed Ali ibn Abi Talib, Prophet Muhammad’s cousin, and son-in-law, as the successor (McHugo 23). This faction believed that the leaders were supposed to come from the prophet’s bloodline. As a result, the Islamic sect that supported Abu Bakr’s leadership became the Sunnis. Sunnis are regarded as the followers of Sunna, which refers to the teachings, acts, and traditions of Muhammad (“The Sunni-Shia Divide”). Alternatively, the faction that supported and based their faith on the leadership of Ali became the Shias, drawn from the words Shiat Ali which mean partisans of Ali (Steed 182). Nevertheless, despite the differences between the two factions, Abu Bakr became the first caliph.
Even though the Sunnis mostly influenced the caliphate, the political tensions between the two sects continued following the assassination of two Sunni caliphs. Ali became the fourth caliph after the demise of Uthman, and his reign lasted for five years (Chitwood). Nevertheless, his leadership was challenged by Aisha, Prophet Muhammad’s wife, who was angered by Ali’s failure to find Uthman’s killers and accused him of being involved in the murder. This led to the Battle of Camel, which was fought at Basra, Iraq, in 656 between forces allied to Aisha against those supporting Ali (Chitwood). However, Ali won the war, which ignited more divisions between the two factions. Later, Muawiyyah, the then Syrian governor, also went to war against Ali, after which the two rulers agreed to arbitration (al-Jibouri). Nevertheless, the mediators ruled against Ali while Muawiyyah took over the caliphate despite Ali’s opposition. Ali was later assassinated in 661, after which Muawiyyah assumed leadership and established the Ummayad dynasty, which ruled between 670- and 750 (Chitwood). This regime was one of the most powerful in Islamic history.
The Shias greatly opposed the authority of the Ummayads, causing further rifts between the two groups. In 680, due to the amounting pressure from the Shias, Hussein, Ali’s youngest son, waged war against Yazid, Muawiyyah’s son (Louër 1). However, Hussein’s group could not defeat the caliph’s large army, and he was killed alongside his 72 companions in what is popularly known as the Battle of Karbala (Lucas 46). His death was greatly mourned by the Shias, who thought of him as a martyr. Each year, the day of the Battle of Karbala is commemorated as Ashura, with many pilgrims visiting Hussein’s shrine in Karbala, presently Iraq (Lucas 46). Therefore, the killing of Hussein by the Sunni caliph further deepened the rift between the factions. Research also indicates that some Sunni caliphs ordered the executions of several Shia imams and followers, forcing the Shia sect to practice in secrecy. For example, Ja’far al-Sadiq, a Shia imam, was executed following Sunni caliph Al- Mansur (“The Sunni-Shia Divide”). There are also accounts of mass executions of Shia Muslims and the destruction of imam tombs at the orders of different Sunni caliphs.
The Sunnis ruled over other Muslims for a significant part of the first ten centuries until the Safavid regime was founded in Persia. The dynasty reigned from 1501 to 1736 and gained control over Iran, Bahrain, Azerbaijan, Armenia, and some parts of Turkey, Afghanistan, and Uzbekistan (Tucker 97). The Safavids made Twelver Shiism the main religion of their dynasty, which conflicted with their rival neighbors, the Ottomans, who were Sunnis. Many battles were fought between these dynasties as the Ottoman perceived the Safavids as heretics. As the empires faded, their legacies led to the current distribution of Islamic sects.
Generally, the key contributor to the schism between the Sunnis and Shias was the battle for Prophet Muhammad’s successor. However, the dominance of the Sunnis and persecutions and increased marginalization of the Shias have continually escalated the rift between the two sects. Even though the two factions believe in the Qur’an and Prophet Muhammad’s teachings and may intermarry or pray at the same mosques, some of their rituals and interpretations of the Islamic law differ.
The Developments of Both Sects from the Beginning to Modern Day
Due to the schism between the Sunnis and the Shias, both factions have adopted distinct approaches to governance hence progressing differently. The Sunnis have continually believed that the Muslim leaders (caliphs) should be elected through a consensus (ijma) according to democratic principles (Porter 34). Similarly, due to the trust in the secular leadership of the caliphs during the Umayyad and Abbasid regimes, the Sunnis are subdivided into four schools of jurisprudence, namely the Hanafi, Shafei, Hanbali, and Maliki (Chitwood). They follow one of these schools either partly or wholly to decide on issues such as family, worship, banking, environmental concerns, and criminal law. In addition, the Hanbali later gave rise to the Wahhabi and Salafi movements in Saudi Arabia, who are regarded as puritans and greatly oppose Shia Islam (“The Sunni-Shia Divide”). Although the different sub-sects of Sunni are united by the Qur’an and the practices of Muhammad, they permit distinct legal opinions.
Since their split with the Sunnis, the Shias have long relied on Imams believed to belong to Muhammad’s lineage as their leaders. This sect continues to believe that only members of the prophet’s bloodline can be considered genuine spiritual leaders. However, in the absence of a direct descendant, the Shias usually select a representative to rule, with such appointed rulers being referred to as ayatollahs (Chitwood). The leadership structure has developed, becoming more hierarchical where the religious leaders who are trained clergies have much influence on the government.
Over the years, the Shia sect has been split further into different sub-divisions with diverse beliefs. In this case, the mainstream Shia holds the belief that there were twelve Imams. However, the Zaydi Shias, mainly located in Yemen, split from the mainstream Shia group at the fifth Imam but maintained the Imam’s rule in different parts of Yemen (Steed 182). The Ismaili Shias, mainly based in South Asia but linked to other communities in various parts of the world, split from the major Shia community at the seventh Imam. A majority of the Ismailis honor the Aga Khan as the representative of their Imam (“The Sunni-Shia Divide”). The mainstream Shia, especially those living in Iran and the eastern Arab, maintain that the twelve Imam got into a state of occultation in 939 and would reappear during the end time (Lucas 47). As a result, the ‘Twelvers,’ also known as the Ithna Ashari, have bestowed religious authority on the ayatollahs.
Even though the two sects have co-existed peacefully, they continue to battle for the Islamic leadership. This religious divide has significantly fueled a resurgence of conflicts in many Muslim nations, particularly in the Middle East. These struggles for dominance between the Sunnis and the Shias have greatly contributed to the Syrian war, which has created much fissures in the Gulf nations (“The Sunni-Shia Divide”). The struggle for Islamic leadership has led to the growth of sectarian militants. For instance, the Islamic State and al-Qaeda have been affiliated with the Sunni sect, while the Hezbollah militants are linked to the Shia group (“The Sunni-Shia Divide”). Presently Saudi Arabia is the most powerful Sunni sect, with Iran being the most influential Shia group. The escalating divisions between the two factions can be attributed to the struggle for power between these two nations. Thus, their rivalry is likely to continue shaping the future relations between the Sunnis and the Shias.
Why Sunni Is the Dominant Sect in Modern Day
Several factors may have contributed to the dominance of the Sunnis in modern-day Islam. One of the primary reasons may be the Sunnis’ dominance in Islamic leadership from its inception until today. For instance, the Sunnis were the prominent Islamic rulers in the first nine centuries. The spread of Islam has been linked to the powerful dynasties during the seventh and eighth centuries, particularly the Umayyad and Abbasids regimes, who were Sunnis (Gilbert 52). Therefore, since the Sunni dynasties significantly contributed to the spread of Islam to different parts, many adherents were most likely to identify with the dominant sect, thus becoming Sunnis. In addition, the Sunni regimes were the first to permit the conversion of non-Arabic individuals into Islam, thus attracting many Muslim faithfuls (Hutchings 31). Alternatively, at first, the Shias were opposed to the idea of non-Arabs becoming Muslims because they perceived that Islam was a pious religion meant for the Arabs only. Even though both sects allow the adherents from diverse ethnicities and races, the Shias are considered more conservative than the Sunnis.
Over the decades, the Shias have been critically marginalized and persecuted, explaining their few numbers. In this regard, the Shia’s history has been marred by great persecutions where the Sunni leadership has executed several Imams and adherents. Even in modern times, the Shias have often been targeted by militants attached to the Sunni sect. For example, in August 2019, 29 Shia Muslims were killed while 64 were wounded following an attack at the biggest Shia Muslim mosque at Herat in Afghanistan (Socolovsky). In this case, the fear of marginalization, opposition, and persecution may deter many Muslims from joining the Shia sect.
The difference in leadership beliefs between the Sunnis and Shias may attract or deter huge followership. Many Muslims may identify with the Sunni sect because its form of leadership is more democratic and flexible compared to the Shia’s organizational structure. The Sunnis believe a leader should be selected based on their qualities and ability to govern, while the Shias maintain that the ruler should be a descendant of Muhammad. This makes the Shia appear more conservative and rigid, discouraging some Muslim adherents, especially the non-Arabs.
The Locations of the Majority of the Sunni and Shia Sects
The Sunnis form a majority of the Islamic adherents, with the Shia being the minority. According to research, about 85% of the 1.6 billion Muslim population are Sunnis, while 15% are Shias (McHugo 16). The Sunnis form the majority in over 40 nations, including Morocco and Indonesia (“The Sunni-Shia Divide”). Alternatively, the Shias form a majority in Iraq, Iran, Bahrain, and Azerbaijan (McHugo 16). However, although the Shia form a minority in Lebanon, they outnumber the Sunni, who are a majority in the country.
There are several reasons behind the current demographic distribution of the Islamic sects. In this case, most of the Islam rulers throughout history were Sunnis who spread Islam to the Middle East and different parts of the world. For example, Islam was spread to India under the Umayyad regime, while the Abbasids extended the religion to Africa (Hutchings 3). It was later spread to Asia and other regions like Europe and the United States. Therefore, the spread of Sunnis in many parts of the world may be attributed to the strong influence of the Sunni regimes after the establishment of the Islamic religion.
The location of the Shia Muslims in Iraq, Bahrain, Iran, and Azerbaijan may be due to religious significance. The Shias base their faith on the leadership of Ali and all Muhammad’s descendants, as well as the martyrdom of Hussein. Ali’s capital was established in Kufa, modern-day Iraq. It is believed that he was buried at the Imam Ali Mosque at Najaf, also in Iraq, which is a major pilgrimage location (Lucas 46). In addition, Hussein, who is hailed as a martyr by the Shias, was executed at Karbala, which is also found in Iraq. Thus, the religious significance that the Shias attach to Iraq may be why this sect is a majority in the country and the neighboring nations. Similarly, the Safavid dynasty (Shias) rule in Iraq, Bahrain, Iran, and Azerbaijan from the sixteenth to seventeenth centuries may have significantly influenced the Muslims in these regions to adhere to the Shia practices.
Conclusion
The schism between the Sunnis and Shias is due to differences in leadership ideologies. Despite the Islamic belief in Qur’an and Prophet Muhammad, the Sunnis and Shia have distinct practices and leadership structures. The Sunnis believe that a leader should be chosen based on consensus and democratic principles, while the Sunnis maintain that rulers should only come from Muhammad’s lineage. Due to these differences, the two factions have often clashed over the Islamic leadership as each group perceives itself to be more pious hence deserving to rule over the other. However, the Sunnis continue to dominate the Islamic rule due to their vast numbers and control of important pilgrimage sites such as Medina and Mecca. On the other hand, the Shias remain a minority mainly due to their marginalization and persecution even today. Nevertheless, despite their differences, these factions live peacefully and even intermarry in some countries. Thus, the wrangles between the two sects will continue impacting the relations between the Sunni and Shia Muslims.
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