Introduction
This annotated bibliography is a part of the project on Christian education in American schools. The primary aims of the project are to define and explore the Methodist religion, find out how it is connected with education, and determine its other severe impacts on various aspects and fields of American society. Each of the following sources is high-quality and peer-reviewed and has been identified as able to contribute to the discussion to some extent. Overall, the project’s methodology is qualitative, precisely, a literature review. Since this topic and its various aspects have been successfully explored earlier, this project’s objective is to gather the existing information, summarize it, and add to the matter. Being one of the largest denominations in the United States, the Methodist movement had a number of severe effects on all its parts, aspects, and fields, and its contribution to how religion was perceived by the general American population cannot be overestimated. This paper seeks to examine the essential aspects of Christianity in relation to education and prove the significance of the movement on the promotion of literacy in the general population, particularly, children, therefore,
A New Look at Schooling and Literacy: The Colony of Georgia
This journal article by Linda Arthur is credible and quite informative research that is of great value to the main project. Thus, in her study on the colony of Georgia, Arthur discussed the importance of colonial schooling and the inclusion of religion. It was hypothesized that the given educational system could be altered to show how the baseline estimations were incorrect and did not portray the actual issues with colonial schools. Accordingly, the organizational structure of the Georgia colony was rather limited in terms of resources, making it exceptionally hard for educators to disseminate relevant knowledge in the area. This is an important subject that shows how colonies could not benefit from certain advances in school management of that time. This kind of portrayal of schools in Georgia makes it safe to say that religion, on the other hand, played a crucial role in helping the government establish order and achieve better results.
Applying the biblical worldview to the subject matter on will recognize the importance of encouraging the education process while maintaining the importance of essential Biblical qualities, specifically, the concept of Christlikeness. By incorporating the specified notion into the academic process, one will ensure that students connect the process of learning to exercising essential biblical principles and characteristics. As a result, the very framework of personal development and cognition learners will be aligned with the Christian perspective, informing their further development.
As stated by the author, there are some beliefs that the founders of Georgia did not want to establish schools. However, this was contradicted by religious communities, and religious charities were usually tied to education. For instance, it is indicated by Arthur that the ministers across Georgia wanted to make their followers read religious texts, and this fact was well-known. Additionally, teachers were sometimes supervised and taught by ministers, so this impact of religion on education cannot be unnoticed or denied. Finally, the strengths of this research are that the author provides many references and an in-depth analysis of the findings. At the same time, the possible weaknesses are the lack of implications for further research and the limitations of this article.
Situating Teachers’ Instructional Practices
This article is written by professionals in the field and can be considered a rather reputable, credible, and relevant research as it contains numerous references and is supported by interview results. Overall, the paper dwells on the development of two types of scholarships that have to be considered when discussing the American educational sector. The first scholarship is mostly concerned with the organizational features of the given educational institution. The second scholarship revolves around teachers’ learning and their continuous professional development. To an extent, an analytic approach to the community’s needs and aspirations should be required when helping educators and students achieve something through the interface of continuous activities. Thus, coordination efforts cannot be overlooked in this case because they might eventually benefit the leadership and the development of various interconnections intended to push the community forward. In a sense, the core task of educators should be to engage students in multiple activities for knowledge and experience exchange. With this analytic perspective at hand, more decisions in the field of education could be made with pragmatics in mind.
As in every study, there is a number of strengths and weaknesses in the article by Cobb, McClain, de Silva Lamberg, and Dean. The former group includes the great structure of the paper that allows for easier navigation and a vast number of references to support the research. Additionally, the approach itself is described quite professionally and in detail. At the same time, one weakness of the paper may be the fact that the authors do not outline the limitations of their research, which are evidently present in the method they select.
From the Christian perspective, introducing the relevant instructional practices is vital as it will entail a change in students’ perception of the process of learning and its ultimate goals. Specifically, with the reinforcement of the notions of Christlikeness and the unceasing personal development, the shift toward the understanding of the idea of continuous spiritual growth may occur in learners. Therefore, the proposed technique will pave the way to continuous learning send unceasing self-education in students. Moreover, the focus on self-education will occur in the target setting with the introduction of the proposed principles into the academic context.
Phenomenology and Catholic Thought: Unfolding the Logos of the Logos
In this book chapter from a credible textbook, a rather detailed discussion on the topic of the connection between Catholic thinking and phenomenology is presented. It is noticeable that the author takes the time to disclose the value of hermeneutic thinking as well, despite the latter being much closer to the Protestant tradition. The philosophy of Martin Heidegger is also mentioned a number of times as one of the core contributors to Catholic thinking. What is more, the ideas of Jean-Luc Marion and Jean-Yves Lacoste, one of the best-known Catholic philosophers and a follower of Martin Heidegger’s philosophy, respectively, are also discussed by Gschwandtner. The topic of phenomenology is important for religion because it shows how increasing theoretical work could enhance theological teachings and eventually influence the Catholic tradition as a whole. The slow development of philosophical thinking in religion eventually paid off and led to the deployment of Roman Catholic institutions and numerous other schools.
Information from this chapter is quite valuable and crucial for the main project because it proves facts and insights relevant to the topic. For instance, according to Gschwandtner, the differences between traditions stem from the variety of philosophical doctrines supporting religion from a number of angles. This concept refers directly to the matter explored in the project and allows for better analysis and understanding. What is more, there is also information about the changes embraced by Methodists and the reasons that provoked these changes. Since this is a chapter, it is quite challenging to define its weaknesses, but one strength is the use of primary and secondary resources, which allows for their further review and possible inclusion in the project.
Did America Have a Christian Founding? Separating Modern Myth from Historical Truth
To begin with, what adds credibility to this book is that it is written by a distinguished professor, who once gave a lecture on the topic, received positive feedback, and decided to delve further into this discussion. Overall, the dilemma behind the actual founding of America continues to haunt many scholars to this day. The book at hand takes valuable historical facts in order to validate America’s Christian background and see if the founders’ religious background could have had any impact on the outcomes. Accordingly, the question becomes rather subjective because it cannot be tested against the idea of the founders being from a completely different denomination. Incomplete historical records are hard to overcome, as the Christian beliefs of the founders would not necessarily hint at America’s Christian founding process.
The author of the book took an evidence-based approach to the question, which is one strength of the research, and followed the history of Christian ideals to find out how public policy and law were altered under the influence of Christian values. Thus, the inherent religious liberties that populated America during both Awakenings could be considered a thorough explanation for the balance that has been achieved in the field of religion over the years. In conclusion, Hall states that the nation’s founding, including education, was significantly impacted by Christian thought, and this is beneficial for both religious and non-religious people. Information from this book that is used in the project refers to John Wesley, who advocated for Methodist fellowship. This book may be considered a rather strong and persuasive text that is supported by other sources, provides the necessary proof, and adds to the main topic.
Puritanism and Its Impact upon American Values
It is hard to disagree that the fundamental impact of Puritanism on the life of people across the United States remains relatively strong. This and related issues are explored in the article by Kang, who provides greatly structured and evidence-based research. According to the author, despite the majority of signs of the dominance of Puritanism diminishing in New England, it is still interesting how American values intertwine with that far-reaching influence. The everyday life of an American citizen sometimes requires them to establish a closer relationship with religion in order to overcome certain obstacles. It is noticeable that, regardless of the theological impact of Christianity fading slightly, Americans still utilize a religious filter when interpreting political and ethical thoughts. It goes on to show that an American lifestyle practically co-exists with religion and its huge impact on society due to the long-standing effects of Puritan and Methodist teachings. The national character of the American people is also shaped by their religious preferences and exposure to the Scripture.
Overall, after reviewing the development and various aspects of Puritanism, the author lists its effects on American values, including the foundation of individualism, democracy, national character, a strong sense of mission, and finally, devotion to popular education. This detailed explanation of each aspect, especially the final one, can be quite relevant to the main project, so the value of the article by Kang cannot be overestimated. The strength of this research is that all sides and aspects of Puritanism are explored thoroughly, and the paper includes numerous valuable concepts. Finally, one possible weakness is the lack of a call for action or a rationale for the research: is it intended to merely add to the debate about Puritanism and America?
Pedlar in Divinity: George Whitefield and the Great Awakening, 1737-1745
In their peer-reviewed article, Lambert discusses various aspects, causes, and outcomes of the First Great Awakening. Overall, this event is outlined by the author as one of the most important events in the religious history of America. It is noticeable that the traditional boundaries were moved successfully, allowing the existing preachers to capitalize on the variety of activities. The latter could popularize religion and ensure that the Great Awakening would become the biggest promoter of faith ever. It is a great benefit that the author also mentions that a number of such activities were considered blatant and over-the-top in terms of their outcomes. Despite this fact, however, the name of religion was respectfully protected by the biggest evangelists and their followers. Thus, numerous preachers found a way to popularize religion during that time while also using rational thought to support their position in order to battle unenlightened criticism.
Consequently, according to Lambert, this was one of the best solutions for the supporters of the First Awakening because it gave them a chance to send out an essential message to vast audiences without any damage given to the Church or the community. The reason this research may be found useful and relevant to the project is that it contains valuable information that can be referred to the Methodist community. This is a rather strong paper that probably does not contain any evident weaknesses. At the same time, as for its benefits, they are the fact that the author gives credit to opposite views and opinions, supports their study with evidence and references, and adds a unique interpretation of the matter.
Perry Miller’s Rehabilitation of the Puritans: A Critique
This informative critique written by George Marsden discusses Perry Miller and Puritans, which is quite informative for the project in question. Overall, the author critiqued the rehabilitation of the Puritans in an attempt to explain how the vision and the works released by Miller were somewhat inaccurate when it came down to religious creed, understanding, and denominations. The Methodist and the Puritan movements were adequately displayed by Miller, which served as a cause for Marsden to comment on them. The author proves that tough-mindedness might become a rather negative trend within the field of religious beliefs. The Renaissance was rather hard to overcome due to numerous uncompromising Christians who were unwilling to see the world from at least two different angles. Accordingly, Marsden highlights the adequate revisions of the Puritan movement that have led to an elegant rehabilitation of the denomination and the adepts of Puritanism.
In other words, an inaccuracy could have destroyed any of the denominations instantly because it would lose people’s trust. At the same time, Marsden finds it essential to indicate that Miller’s contribution to Puritanism’s appreciation and understanding is invaluable. Nevertheless, the weakness of Miller’s research that the author of this article highlights is that he missed the important aspects of Puritan religion and theology in order to restore their image. This, in turn, is the key strength of Marsden’s work: the researcher managed to highlight both the negative and positive aspects of Miller’s studies, not devaluating the latter’s significance. This article is beneficial for the project because it provides unique views on Puritans and also some aspects of the Methodist movement as a whole, including the role of redemption.
Archibald Alexander and the Use of Books: Theological Education and Print Culture in the Early Republic
To begin with, this journal article by David Paulus closely investigates the impressions that religion could generate through the interface of theological education and cultural peculiarities. This is a high-quality and credible resource that offers a unique interpretation of the concepts relevant to the topic. Overall, the author distinguishes conversions and impressions and shares several descriptive ideas that help the readers recognize the significance of religion and the subsequent growth of the Church. Even though there can be scenarios without practical directions, Paulus focuses on Christianity as one of the biggest motivating factors for individuals to take care of their lives and experience appeal and encouragement. Also, Christianity pays close attention to the notions of suffering and affliction. God’s word has to be interpreted differently because of the variations inherent in religious experiences and their potential impact on people across the globe. There should be a genuine way to translate one’s intentions into beliefs and communicate those to the world. Thus, Paulus suggested that theological education could take one closer to God while also helping them keep in touch with reality.
All the aforementioned concepts can be of great value to the project as they are related to religion and education. What is more, Paulus also offers information about the government of the Methodist Episcopal Church and the challenges episcopacy faced. One positive feature of this peer-reviewed paper is that it explores the matter from different perspectives to see the whole picture. The article is filled with references, and there are no unanswered questions left. At the same time, one possible weakness is the lack of a good conclusion that would summarize and paraphrase the key points of the text and restate its thesis statement.
The Quaker Executions as Myth and History
This extended paper is quality research on various aspects related to Quakers. Generally, the story told by Pestana touches upon four Quakers who were executed by the Massachusetts Bay Colony after refusing to leave the Puritan commonwealth. It was an essential topic for the missionaries of that time because Quakers tended to spread the fake word about the end of the world. The need to accept the truth was the moving motive of the Quakers’ agenda, which also turned them into zealous yet lying partners. The inspiration for Quakers was to establish a whole new world and ensure that people from the area would eventually convert to the New World denomination. This so-called invasion of Quakers failed due to the unwillingness of the local churches to side with the apocalyptic scenario. The self-proclaimed publishers of truth were dismayed in order to banish any instances of a lie in the future.
Overall, the colonies affected by Quakers became closer to recognizing the value of missionary activities while also gaining a better understanding of how other denominations could invest logic and knowledge in religion. Thus, it is possible to indicate that this paper gives an interesting opinion about the role of Quakers in the colonies and religion itself. Noticeably, the Puritan presentation in U.S. society was significantly undermined by the Quaker movement, and this is an interesting fact to include in the project. This paper’s main strength is that it reviews Quakers from different perspectives and mentions their positive and negative impacts.
Reinterpreting Schempp: Is Teaching Spiritual Identity Development in the Public Schools Permissible
The relevance of this study to the project’s topic is quite high since the paper by Randall explores the connection between religion and schooling. In other words, the level of education in public schools is questioned by Randall in an attempt to see if the United States actually lives up to the standards set by the most populous denominations. Thus, the process of adopting a program that is based on spiritual identity conundrums represents a serious challenge to educators. The lack of an understanding of how to interpret religiosity might make certain educators avoid religion in all of its forms and shapes. History showed that a formal curriculum could eventually create a grey area for the educator in order not to force religious education upon reluctant students.
To a certain extent, this is a crucial factor because it shows how worldviews could be formed under the influence of religion and ethics. The dichotomy offered by Schempp and described by Randall could be perceived as the best way to contribute to the discussion on the differences between academic studies and devotional instruction. In this article, the author refers to other credible studies in order to provide numerous views and summarize them in one, more specific consideration of the religious impact on education. Since this topic is also explored in the project, this article may be of great help and explain, for example, the significance of camp meetings in relation to serving both the community and the Church.
Civil Religion, the Religious Right, and the Fracturing of Christian Republicanism
The existence of a religious lens makes it possible for the government to evaluate its own actions based on how the Christian Americans would respond to those actions. This matter is explored by Schultz is their credible text, which is a book’s chapter. Overall, it may be understood from the aforementioned idea that a highly religious political figure could be perceived as a well-regarded professional looking forward to improving the existing state of affairs. Nevertheless, political actions could be subject to non-religious practices. This is why Schultz’s article draws the majority of conclusions from the discussion on how religious responses to political actions could be overlooked as ineffective or unnecessary. The emulation of certain ethical values might also become beneficial for the government on a long-term scale – such cases are present in the history of the United States. At the same time, the history of American Christianity proves that religious understandings of the world cannot be inferior to politics since both these variables tend to get mixed by Americans within an individual ideology.
Generally, Schultz argued that the relationship between politics and religiosity became flawed over time due to the lack of a natural balance between these two values. Indeed, considering the facts mentioned above, it is quite challenging to maintain such balance. This research is quite relevant for the project as it explores the topic in relation to the connection between the government and religion, adding numerous insights to the topic.
The History of the Catholic Church in Latin America: From Conquest to Revolution and Beyond
In the book written by Schwaller, some of the biggest issues experienced by the Catholic Church in Latin America are reviewed. This severe and significant topic is examined carefully and thoroughly by the author, who is a professional in the field and has many other books and articles written on similar topics. The history of the Catholic Church should be considered by Americans because of the inherent issues that affect missionaries and preachers intending to promote religion in the area. Despite the existence of standardized missions, the majority of missionaries in Latin America were completely non-homogenous. The variety of religious orders made it harder for local people to understand what rules to follow and how to appreciate God and the Bible. The diversity was not enough to finalize evangelization efforts properly and create an environment where the Gospel could be brought to the natives without obstacles.
As a result, the importance of these findings can be reflected in the fact that personal attitudes and cultural differences eventually slowed down the popularization of certain denominations across Latin America. There is no doubt that this fact plays an important role in the connection between religion and community, meaning that one always impacts the other, and this impact is mutual. Overall, this discussion can be added to the project, and the book itself can contribute greatly to the exploration of the topic.
American Zion: The Old Testament as a Political Text from the Revolution to the Civil War
In the book, the author dwells on the situation that broke out on the verge of the 1860s, when slavery escalated, and a large number of individuals started searching for answers in the Bible. Indeed, this is a rather interesting aspect to study as this is precisely the effect of religion on the inner spirit’s strengthening. The inherent conflict that had to be resolved was already discussed by Mark Noll, who also advocated for the importance of the Second Great Awakening and evangelic behaviors. Anti-slavery moods were also popularized confidently, as similar ideas could be found in the Old Testament. Therefore, biblical verses became one of the ways for people to cope with the increasing pressure caused by slavery and the lack of elaborate arguments on the subject.
The morality of slavery was also questioned using the Bible and the ethical mechanisms that also pushed the Second Great Awakening forward. The scriptural authority could not be challenged by people believing in the Bible, so the emphasis was placed on biblicism instead. Later during the 19th century, the Bible became a political instrument for the government as well. Overall, it is quite evident that this article can contribute greatly to the project since the latter also explores the effects of religion on the community. It is noticeable that the primary strength of this book is in its uniqueness – this is the first text to explore the essence and effects of America being a new Israel. Additionally, the book allows for a better understanding of how the nation perceives its religion and origin.
Foundations of Liberty
Liberty is one of the central topics of Snyder’s research on Christianity and politics, especially with some of the politicians being more than ready to exploit the link between morality and legality of certain actions. Accordingly, the lack of an absolute truth allowed people from different denominations to do what they believed was rightful while supporting it with scriptures from the Bible. Even though the sense of morality was vital when it came down to truth and virtues, many political figures chose to react to the Bible and religiosity slightly more dissimilar. The fact that liberty and other ethical and legal “relics” were ignored by the government also proved that this kind of disregard would have to be removed completely. Instead, it was proposed to reinforce rational liberties and introduce people to the value of adequately limited religiosity. The restraints of traditional beliefs had to be challenged by engaging in the process of achieving personal autonomy and considering all kinds of social conventions and ethical patterns.
Overall, among other matters, this high-quality research discusses the relationship between religion and government and the way the former’s rules and concepts can be altered by the latter. The paper is based on the analysis and commenting on other academics’ studies, primarily the ideas of Jedidiah Morse. The fact that both positive and negative aspects of Morse’s teachings are highlighted in the paper is its main strength. The way it relates to the main project is that it also explores the connection between the Methodist movement and the community.
John Winthrop’s City of Women
This is a rather trustworthy and relevant website article by Laurel Thatcher that contributes to the issue discussed in the project. Overall, it is possible to say that the stories covered by Thatcher are exceptionally important because they revolve around the role of women in denominations. This is definitely a unique perspective on the topic of matter, which is not explored by all articles reviewed above. The example of Anne Hutchinson and her relationship with the Puritan community of Massachusetts proves that the patriarchal influence on religion was too strong at that time. One of the dimensions of this complex story that could eventually contribute to the bigger picture would be the fact that the Puritan movement displayed mixed feelings when it came down to encouraging female assertiveness in religion. Despite being religious speculation, this finding makes it safe to say that female subjection was endorsed just as often, causing many to believe that women had no weight in society at all.
Accordingly, religious ideas of the denominations that had been active during the First and the Second Great Awakenings could be seen as political and socio-economic tools to keep the government and the public intact. The value of these concepts and facts outlined by Thatcher cannot be overestimated: it is quite often that people are assured of something, which eventually appears to be different. Thus, the author indicates that female assertiveness and lay engagement in religious discourse were initially encouraged by the Puritan movement. This is a rather interesting note that can be added to the project to extend the understanding of Puritans and religion in general.
Conclusion
The Methodist movement had a positive impact on the personal spiritual and prayer life of people, the life of the church, culture, morality and social foundations of the English society of the XVIII century. The main object of influence for the preachers of Methodism were the lower strata, deprived of the opportunity to attend church and driven into the hardships of a joyless existence. However, Methodism has gathered a lot of followers among the middle strata – entrepreneurs. Due to the idea of the redemptive value of good deeds, philanthropy and mutual assistance, the new movement helped them achieve a balance between harsh and sometimes cruel business conditions and Christian morality. As a result of the skillful organizational work of the first Methodists, the movement spread not only throughout England, but also later reached American shores. In many ways, it determined the further social and cultural development of England, America and other countries.
References
Arthur, Linda. “A New Look at Schooling and Literacy: The Colony of Georgia.” The Georgia Historical Quarterly 84, no. 4 (2000): 563-588. Web.
Cobb, Paul, Kay McClain, Teruni de Silva Lamberg, and Chrystal Dean. “Situating Teachers’ Instructional Practices.” Educational Researcher 32, no. 6 (2003): 13-24.
Gschwandtner, Christina M. “6. Phenomenology and Catholic Thought: Unfolding the Logos of the Logos.” The Catholic Reception of Continental Philosophy in North America, 2020, 146–77. Web.
Hall, Mark David. Did America Have a Christian Founding? Separating Modern Myth from Historical Truth. Nashville, TN: Nelson Books, 2020.
Kang, Ning. “Puritanism and Its Impact upon American Values.” Review of European Studies 1, no. 2 (2009): 149–51. Web.
Lambert, Frank. “Pedlar in Divinity”: George Whitefield and the Great Awakening, 1737-1745.” The Journal of American History 77, no. 3 (1990): 812-837. Web.
Marsden, George. “Perry Miller’s Rehabilitation of the Puritans: A Critique.” Church History 39, no. 1 (1970): 91-105. Web.
Paulus, David. “Archibald Alexander and the Use of Books: Theological Education and Print Culture in the Early Republic.” Journal of the Early Republic 31, no. 4 (2011): 639-669. Web.
Pestana, Carla Gardina. “The Quaker Executions as Myth and History.” The Journal of American History 80, no. 2 (1993): 441-469. Web.
Randall, Brendan W. “Reinterpreting Schempp: Is Teaching Spiritual Identity Development in the Public Schools Permissible?” Transformations: The Journal of Inclusive Scholarship and Pedagogy 25, no. 1 (2014): 25–44. Web.
Schultz, Roger. “Civil Religion, the Religious Right, and the Fracturing of Christian Republicanism.” A Christian Civil Order: Religion, Republicanism, and the American Founding, 2018, 186–215. Web.
Schwaller, John Frederick. The History of the Catholic Church in Latin America: From Conquest to Revolution and Beyond. New York, NY: New York University Press, 2011.
Shalev, Eran. American Zion: The Old Testament as a Political Text from the Revolution to the Civil War. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014.
Snyder, K A. “Foundations of Liberty: The Christian Republicanism of Timothy Dwight and Jedidiah Morse.” The New England Quarterly 56, no. 3 (1983): 382-397. Web.
Thatcher, Laurel. “John Winthrop’s City of Women.” History Cooperative. Massachusetts Historical Review, 2021. Web.