Introduction
Cognitive learning theorists developed the idea of information processing to understand better how people learn and remember new information. The theory of information processing is often credited as the brainchild of George Miller who found that the average human being’s working memory has room for seven objects (Vuong et al., 2022). Further, he developed the word “chunking” to characterize the properties of short-term memory (Vuong et al., 2022). Three parts of the mind’s cognitive system work together to make information processing possible: memory stores, cognitive processes, and metacognition. It is predicated on the notion that people do not only react to environmental cues but also analyze the data they get.
Sensory Memory
In sensory memory, unprocessed environmental cues are temporarily stored until processing occurs. While the capacity of sensory memory is essentially infinite, any trace of an experience that is not processed almost instantly will rapidly fade. It has been hypothesized that visual memory can hold information for 1 second and auditory memory for 2 to 4 seconds (Ormrod, 2017). Processing builds on the foundation of sensory memory. For instance, if the first words of a phrase were forgotten before reaching the end, the reader would be unable to interpret the meaning of the sentence in their mind. It is a temporary storage space until the data is transferred to working memory.
Working Memory
Humans have a conscious aspect of the information processing system called working memory, which has a finite capacity and lifespan. Also known as short-term memory, information on this site is structured in a way that is meaningful to the person (Fox et al., 2021). For instance, working memory facilitates mental visualization in arithmetic class, allowing students to “picture” the teacher’s spoken numbers. There is no guarantee they will retain those numbers until the next lesson or class, or possibly 15 minutes later. However, this is not a problem since their working memory has served its purpose by enabling them to complete the current task. Additionally, it aids in the brain’s organization of fresh data for long-term preservation.
Executive Function
The executive function serves several purposes, the most important of which are those of self-control. The executive function handles things like paying attention, making plans, organizing thoughts and actions, completing tasks, responding to challenges, and keeping one’s emotions in check. This is somewhat within the person’s control (– for example, those with ADHD have greater problems staying focused) and partly under the control of the information and the current task (for instance, is it fascinating) (Pineda-Alhucema et al., 2018). Executive functions also prevent people from acting in an undesirable manner. The inability to self-monitor and self-regulate is a hallmark of those with deficiencies in executive functioning.
Long-term Memory
The knowledge a person learns during their lives is stored in their long-term memory, which is a massive and robust database. After the information has been processed and arranged in working memory to be understood by the person, it is encoded into long-term memory, where it can be accessed and integrated with new sensory input. Some things that may be stored in long-term memory include the specifics of a person’s most recent summer vacation, the fact that London is the capital of England and the United Kingdom, and the information about how to drive a car. Many of these pieces of information are preserved as schemas or ordered bundles of data and play a significant role in the cognitive processes involved in language understanding.
Prelinguistic Communication
By the time they reach the pre-linguistic speech stage, newborns have already begun to develop the foundations of both their receptive and expressive language skills. During this period (26 weeks), they begin to make sounds to communicate with others and respond to the world around them (Slater & Bremner, 2017). Cooing and other vocalizations (e.g., “ooh” and “aah”) common in infants, as well as more vegetative noises like sobbing and burping, are the first steps to full-fledged speech. Infants coo involuntarily throughout the first 26 weeks of life, but by the time they are two months old, they can do it on purpose, although they have no idea what these noises represent.
First Words
The first-word period of language acquisition occurs between six months and two years. Babbling and the first words stage may occur simultaneously, and the phrases toddlers create at both stages may be similar (Slater & Bremner, 2017). Nonetheless, as infants reach this phase, they start to give the phrases they use actual meaning. They may use “yes” as a positive response. A toddler this age has a broad sound recognition than production and will frequently replace sounds they can create with those they cannot. When toddlers have trouble pronouncing a particular letter or letter combination, they may substitute another sound for it, for instance, [w] for [l], resulting in [wajk] for like rather than [lajk] (Slater & Bremner, 2017).
Two-Word Utterances
Children start using two words at the age of two and use them for roughly 26 weeks. They can make more sounds, and rudimentary grammar is starting to form. Throughout this stage, vocabulary grows quickly, but toddlers’ utterances are constrained by their restricted vocabulary and maybe by their limited worldview (Slater & Bremner, 2017). Since infants have a limited vocabulary at this age, they may resort to overextension. Toddlers do not yet comprehend the terms horse, sheep, or bunny. Therefore, any animal they encounter may be called a dog. Additionally, there might be cases of under-extension when a term like “kitty” is applied to refer to the kid’s pet, although not to other creatures of the same species (Slater & Bremner, 2017).
Birth to 6 Months
A newborn’s first few months are spent adjusting to their new environment and learning to trust and connect with their primary caregivers. They show you they require attention and affection by smiling, crying, grasping, clinging, sucking, making eye contact, and sucking motions with their mouth (Slater & Bremner, 2017). They thrive on one-on-one interactions, fostering a sense of belonging and deepening bonds with primary caregivers and others. Young infants respond positively to physical contact, and their cries decrease. This will make them feel loved and secure without spoiling them. They glance away, move their heads, or become fidgety in your arms to signal that they need peace (Slater & Bremner, 2017). The ability to play alone and be content for increasing lengths of time is a hallmark of a baby’s maturation.
7 to 18 Months
Older infants like touching, grasping, and placing items in their mouths as they explore the surrounding. They take pleasure in observing people and their environments. Older infants may become fearful of strangers and loved ones they do not see as frequently (like grandparents) as their bond with their primary caregivers deepens (Slater & Bremner, 2017). Their primary caregivers’ proximity and focus comfort them. Older infants discover their identity as unique beings from their primary caregivers by investigating their nearby environment. They may draw links between a person’s facial expression and speech tone, for example, a joyful face and a gentle tone or a worried face and a harsh tone. As they realize that their primary caregivers are not often immediately accessible, older infants start to learn how to control their emotions by calming themselves via behaviors like thumb-sucking and using play to divert their attention (Slater & Bremner, 2017). They learn about their emotions and how to control them more rapidly when carers react promptly, proactively, and sympathetically.
18 Months to 3 Years
Toddlers are developing a strong sense of autonomy and a desire for autonomy. They display many behaviors, from complete self-reliance to complete dependence on others, aggression to calmness, and helpfulness to stubbornness (Slater & Bremner, 2017). These shifts may occur rapidly. Everyone else is ignorant of them since they can only see things from their perspective. This is why children often test primary caregivers’ limits; it is a way for them to make sure that the limits their parents have established are still being enforced. Angry and frustrated children can act out with tantrums and other behaviors (Slater & Bremner, 2017). They react well to hugs, hugging, stroking, patting, soothing words and music, and a peaceful environment.
Play is a way toddlers communicate their emotions and begin to learn how to control them. They begin to express an interest in the emotions of others and identify a range of emotions, including joy, sadness, anger, and fear (Slater & Bremner, 2017). Toddlers may learn more about their own and others’ emotions via creative activities like singing, playing games, reading tales, and using their imagination. They also begin to understand the relationship between causes and effects, drawing on their memories to recall what led to their current emotions (Slater & Bremner, 2017). This is assisted when primary caregivers can have candid conversations regarding how their changes are experienced (Slater & Bremner, 2017). Toddlers may better cope with their emotions and find comfort in times of transition by having a conversation with an adult beforehand.
Conclusion
Preschoolers begin to engage in more social play; however, they may still experience separation anxiety if left alone. Even as they become increasingly independent, they still want the care of their primary caregivers (Slater & Bremner, 2017). Further, they become more open in communicating their emotions. Importantly, toddlers and preschoolers understand that they and others can respond differently to the same experience. Children tend to take things at face value and believe in magic (Slater & Bremner, 2017). Furthermore, since they think wishes can come true, adults should choose their words wisely when discussing issues of significance.
References
Eggen, P. (2020). Information Processing and Human Memory. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education. Web.
Fox, A. (2021). Perplexity between history and memory. Amazon Digital Services LLC
Ormrod, J. E. (2017). How we think and learn: Theoretical perspectives and practical implications. Cambridge University Press.
Pineda-Alhucema, W., Aristizabal, E., Escudero-Cabarcas, J., Acosta-López, J. E., & Vélez, J. I. (2018). Executive function and theory of mind in children with ADHD: A systematic review. Neuropsychology Review, 28(3), 341–358.
Slater, A., & Bremner, G. (2017). An introduction to developmental psychology. John Wiley & Sons
Vuong, Q. H., Le, T. T., & Nguyen, M. H. (2022). Mindsponge mechanism: an information processing conceptual framework. The Mindsponge and BMF Analytics for Innovative Thinking in Social Sciences and Humanities, De Gruyter, 21-46.