Introduction
Childhood is described by many scholars as the age of an individual from the time of birth to adolescence. Another distinct definition in developmental psychology by James, Jenks and Prout (1998) describes childhood as “a stage in life divided into four main stages including toddlerhood, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence consecutively” (p. 126 – 130). In general, there are different concepts and definitions of childhood. This paper looks into these concepts from both the historical and cross-cultural perspective. The paper also looks into the educational systems in the UK and how they shape childhood experiences.
Main Body
The Western conception of childhood applies both in the historical as well as cultural context. Aries (1979) noted that childhood is a modern discovery arguing that at medieval times, the term childhood did not feature. For children who had passed infancy, they were referred to as miniature adults. The definition was so specifically because they were addressed as having adult like characteristics which include dressing and engaging in adult works. Cunningham (1995) supported this assertion saying that children have needs similar to those of adults, and furthermore, they are not shielded from aspects of adult life. Bearing in mind that they are part of adult life experiences, they too deserve being categorized as miniature adults. In fact, O’Malley (2003, p. 20 – 31) noted that “the fact that children acquired knowledge of sexual relations, which was believed by the society to be having no harmful effects on them was prove enough that they possessed adult characteristics”. Aries (1979, p. 87 – 91) gave an example of the public executions which were open to everyone over a long period in history and children too experienced it meaning that they were not seriously treated like children.
However, O’Malley (2003, p. 20 – 31) differed in the opinion with a strong argument that medieval thinkers understood children as being less developed mentally and morally than adults. In this case, there was a remarkable place for children within the society meaning that the concept of childhood was strong and effectual. Galton, Simon, and Croll (1980, p. 30 – 32) reflected the childhood concept and embarked on differentiating it from the conception of childhood. In this case, a childhood concept charges that children are not adults, and a distinction is possible based on varying aspects between them and the adults. On the other hand, a conception is about more specific ideas related to children’s distinctiveness.
In the historical context, scholars considered the childhood concept on the duties and status of children (Aries, 1979). They also tried to bring out the distinction by looking into the distinct rights accorded to individuals at various stages of maturity (Cunningham, 1995). From numerous perspectives, Childhood was also defined as a social status and the arguments did not incorporate the psychological or developmental concepts. However, James, Jenks and Prout (1998, p. 126 – 130) noted that Attitudes toward children experienced drastic changes between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. They noted that these changes affected the upper-class boys and later touched on the sisters (Galton, Simon and Croll, 1980). Gillard (2007) added that, by the beginning of the nineteenth century, children categorized as in the middle-class were held as children indeed and confined to their home or school. However, changes were evident in the working-class whose children were engaged in numerous adult works and supported of their families distinctively. Within the twentieth century, there was a notable reform in the system because children were excluded from the adult world, and the concept of childhood took centre stage (Gillard, 2007).
Culturally, the childhood concept has always held strong grounds. The concept was applied by many theories that portrayed childhood as an ideal stage in the community existence. Numerous cultures over history have treated children different from the adults. These cultures argue out that a child is a noble being and mandates the adults to take full responsibility and care for them (Aries, 1979, p. 87 – 91). From this perspective childhood is conceptualized as a development process that is indispensable in the process of growth to adulthood. Cultures reveal childhood as being composed of stages of development that determine the character of the person. This is why many cultures insist on developing the child in a way that he or she will exhibit irreproachable character and morals in adulthood (Delpit 2002, p. 148 – 151). The adult is held responsible of own actions, but a child is regarded as in need of guidance in every context (James, Jenks and Prout, 1998, p. 126 – 130).
This way, the child is exempted from particular aspects such as decision making on issues related to his or her life. The decisions made by the children must engage the consent of an adult whether a guardian, parent or a close relative for it to pass. The adult was given the freedom of opposing of supporting the child’s decision based on his or her side of view pertaining the child’s well being. Cultures justify that the child is not mature enough to make appropriate decisions but they are trained through role play by the adults. Role playing in this case means, taking on some aspects of adult life but limited to some levels on what they can handle (Aries, 1979, p. 87 – 91). The adults act as role models for the children who take after them the different characteristics in distinct applications.
Cultural perspectives also regard children as incomplete adults who constitute learning for adulthood. Developmental theories conjoined to the cultural perspectives presuppose that children posses varying capacities at different ages and they characterize childhood as a polar opposite of adulthood (James, Jenks and Prout, 1998, p. 126 – 130). They argue that children are dependent yet adults are independent, they play while adults work and they are emotional and adults are rational.
In fact children are excluded by cultural laws from adult life and the general aspects. The laws stipulate that children should spend most of their time with their families or in institutions such as schools so that they can be cared for, trained and entertained separately from adults (James, Jenks and Prout, 1998, p. 126 – 130). Cultural perspectives therefore hold the concept of childhood strongly compared to the historical perspectives. The earlier limits the contacts, which children have with adults outside the family circle. In the same line of arguments, cultural perspectives have led to development of many unique arrangements for children, which serve to show the difference from adults including clothes, songs, toys, games, and books (Aries, 1979, p. 87 – 91).
UK educational systems have had enormous impacts on childhood experiences. In early 1917, the system adopted the Lewis Report which proposed that a school leaving age be raised from 12 to 14 with no exemptions (Gillard, 2007). It also mandated that children should attend schools and continue with classes up to the age of 18. The Education Act in UK established in 1918 enacted these recommendations (Gillard 2007). The idea was to keep children intact within institutions of learning until they are of age to indulge in adult life for instance work (Aries, 1979, p. 87 – 91). Raising the school leaving age meant that the child could have more time with fellow children and prevented any attempt of forcing children to work before they are of age.
The system also had massive impacts on child experiences with a clear example of The Hadow Reports (Gillard, 2007). The reports indicated that the Education of the Adolescent proposed to divide the elementary school system. The division was set into two stages including junior and senior. The division was adopted in order to emphasize on the concept of childhood. Galton, Simon, and Croll (1980, p. 30 – 32) argue that this fundamental change was an effort to assist the society in realizing the differences between children and adult and consider the needs of children differently from the adults. Children therefore, were treated to isolation in their category away from adulthood experiences.
Arnot, David & Weiner (1999, p. 92 – 95) noted that, over a long period after the colonial days, the boys were treated differently from girls on the childhood stage. Sons were trained at home but had the privilege of learning with others. However, they had to be in the house almost for the whole day. The boys studied science, math, Greek, Latin, celestial navigation, fencing, social etiquette, geography and history (Francis, 2000, p. 61 – 74). They were however, allowed to engage into more adult social life experiences by being sent to boarding schools for higher education. For girls, the age of childhood was extended as they were held as dependent more on family ties. The girls were strongly rooted to learning at home and taught by a governess (Francis, 2000, p. 61 – 74). They studied course regarded as lighter for them including social etiquette, cooking, needlework, art, music, French, spinning, weaving, and nursing (Arnot, David & Weiner 1999, p. 92 – 95). The girls were not given an opportunity to study in higher education institutions because they were still regarded as children and prescribed as requiring guidance (Francis, 2000, p. 61 – 74). Nineteenth century experienced reforms in the education system. Principles of child development took the centre state, and they influenced the style of education in UK schools for younger pupils. Arnot, David & Weiner (1999, p. 92 – 95) was of the view that, five factors gave strong impetus to the developmental tradition over this period which looked into childhood as a requirement and a stage in the journey to adulthood.
In the contemporary world, the UK systems have conformed to the modern perspectives where childhood concept is loosing meaning. The childhood concept in the modern day has experienced a drastic change in that children have been engaged so much into adult life. Children as early as their teens are more or less like adults in terms of social life and other practices. The UK education systems integrate varying elements, which have shaped childhood experiences to adult like (Gillard, 2007). However, the systems still support the ideal cultural perspectives of treating children in their own right (Delpit, 2002, p. 148 – 151). The children are supported to engage in play since the system mandates schools to levy charges for activities including swimming, field trips and theatre visits, which build the child social life (Gillard, 2007). With the charges made voluntary, the idea is excellent as it allows all children to engage in such social activities even the one who cannot afford to pay and they can participate in such events building their social life and enjoying their childhood experiences.
Conclusion
Childhood in this paper is taken from many scholars’ works who argue it as the age of an individual from the time of birth to adolescence. However, it has also been explained that childhood is explained differently in the cultural and historic perspectives. The concept of childhood has been identified as lacking in the historical perspective with many works describing children as miniature adults. From the cultural perspective, the argument is extensive and compromises of varying approaches. However, the approach values childhood as a stage in life and a transition into adulthood. The paper has applied the UK education system describing it as having a strong impact on the experiences of children. A key note from the system is that it supports the survival of the childhood concept. It values the distinction of the child from the adult through assigning children a different social life from the adult. The Lewis Report and the Education Act in UK of early 1990s have been identified as supporting the concept that children should be limited to a social life within the family and education institutions.
References
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