Abstract
Emotional abuse is one type of intimate partner violence experienced mostly by women. This paper discusses the emotional abuse of women by their intimate partner with a focus on some categories of women that have received inadequate attention from researchers. It begins by defining emotional abuse as a form of psychological violence carried out by the intimate partner with the aim of manipulating or controlling the woman.
It provides an in-depth analysis of the abuse to provide a better understanding of what constitutes this form of violence. The paper notes that researchers do not address emotional abuse among non-dominant women groups. It therefore details how this abuse occurs among refugees and immigrant women, lesbians, older women, and teenage women. The effects of abuse are discussed and some ways of solving the problem identified. The paper concludes by reasserting the negative effects of emotional abuse and calling on the public to adopt measures to mitigate and eliminate this damaging behavior.
Introduction
While intimate relationships are meant to be nurturing and fulfilling associations that foster emotional health of both partners, this is not always the case. In some instances, one partner experiences physical or non-physical abuse perpetrated by the other partner. While abuse can be perpetrated by both men and women, research indicates that women are often the victims. The Center for Disease Control recognizes the abuse of women by an intimate partner as a major health problem in the United States (Queen, Brackley & Williams, 2009).
The intimate partner violence (IPV) phenomenon is multidimensional in nature and a woman might experience various types of abuses. One common form of abuse experienced by many women is emotional abuse. Campbell (2004) asserts that intimate partners use emotional abuse to punish, subdue, or isolate women.
The perpetrators of emotional abuse target the mental and emotional well-being of the women, and it is frequently an antecedent to physical assault. This paper will discuss the emotional abuse of women by their intimate partner with a focus on some categories of women that have received inadequate attention from researchers. The paper will discuss the manner in which the abuse is perpetrated, reasons for abuse, and its effects on the victims.
The Concept of Emotional Abuse
Historically, the scientific study of intimate partner violence (IPV) focused on the physical abuse of women by male perpetrators. Follingstad and Edmundson (2010) explain that this approach was taken because early studies originated in the much needed investigation of battered women’s experiences. However, from the 1980s, researchers started to recognize that other forms of abuse occur within the relationship setting.
Emotional abuse was recognized as one of the most significant forms of abuses that women experience. By definition, emotional abuse is the “nonphysical abuse, psychological maltreatment, indirect abuse, psychological aggression and psychological abuse” (Campbell & Lewandowski, 2007, p. 358). This form of abuse occurs due to the power imbalance between women and their intimate partners. The abuse manifests in different forms, which include verbal aggravation, ridicule, threats, and segregation of a partner. Yoshihama, Horrocks and Kamano (2009) observe that there is a prevalence of emotional abuse in intimate relationships with an estimated 43.9% of women reporting having suffered this abuse from their partners.
Deconstructing Emotional Abuse
An in-depth analysis of emotional abuse is necessary to understand what constitutes this form of violence and why it is hard to eliminate. Emotional abuse is perpetrated using some overt and covert methods. Some of the tactics utilized include isolation, financial abuse, and extreme possessiveness (Campbell & Soeken, 2008). Partners may also make use of incessant criticism, intimidation, and demeaning behaviors as a form of emotional abuse against women.
Emotional abuse might also be in the form of sexual domination and spiritual abuse. Carson, McNutt, Choi and Rose (2002) document that abusive partners can perpetrate spiritual abuse by making demeaning the religious beliefs of the partner or forbidding them from practicing certain spiritual beliefs. Sex can be used as a tool of emotional abuse by denying conjugal rights or demanding for them considering the partner’s desires. A novel form of emotional abuse that has emerged in recent decades is threats of exposure to STIs including HIV and AIDS (Carson et al., 2002).
The covert forms of emotional abuse are the hardest to discover. Carson et al. (2002) argue that in most cases, instances of emotional abuse are interspersed with episodes of intense warmth and kindness. This creates mixed feelings in the woman and it is hard for her to realize that she is being abused emotionally. Clandestine forms of emotional abuse also include financial manipulation. Carson et al. (2002) argue that abusive intimate partners consider the financial resources as annexes of their influence. A covert form of emotional abuse is the emphasis on secrecy. The abusive partner will stress on the need to maintain secrecy on the activities or experiences that the couple is having.
Carson, McNutt, Choi and Rose (2002) document that the abused woman may be prevented from sharing her relationship experiences with friends or family. As a result of this isolation, the woman suffers silently. In addition to this, the abusive intimate partner monitors his partner to ensure that she does not interact with people who may identify the psychological abuse and persuade them to take action.
Reasons for Emotional Abuse
A major reason for the emotional abuse of women by their intimate partners is to exert control. Men often feel the need to control their partners within the relationship (Follingstad & Edmundson, 2010). This form of patriarchal terrorism aims to subdue the woman and force her to act according to the wishes of the man. Campbell and Lewandowski (2007) confirm that emotional abuse is “a means of establishing power and control over the victim in addition to enabling the abuser to maintain a system of psychologically abusive behaviors that reinforce these power and control” (p. 359).
By engaging in emotional abuse, the man is able to coerce the woman into giving up some of her personal rights and freedoms. Queen et al. (2009) document that the man is able to control the woman’s personal freedom and autonomy by engaging in acts of psychological violence, such as threatening to harm the woman’s family, friends, or pets.
Emotional abuse is also caused by insecure attachment styles in relationships. The insecure attachment style is characterized by a lack of trust in the partner and the tendency to be more jealous (Weston, 2008). Intimate relationships involve some form of attachment between the partners. Healthy attachments between the adults results in fulfilling relationships. However, unhealthy attachments lead to emotional abuse and a decline in relationship quality. Studies have shown that when men are feeling insecure, they are likely to engage in psychological abuse against their partners (Weston, 2008). The psychological abuse includes frequent verbal aggression and emotional manipulation.
Preconceptions in Literature
The move by researchers to classify emotional abuse as an independent form of IPV was a significant step. Queen et al (2009) state that this step led to intensified studies on emotional abuse; its causes, impacts and how it could be mitigated. However, there is still a bias in the manner in which this form of abuse is addressed by researchers. Campbell and Lewandowski (2007) assert that the literature does not cover all categories of women.
There is limited information on certain classes of women, including immigrants, lesbians, aboriginals and older women. When addressing emotional abuse, literature regards all women as a homogenous group. This approach disregards the distinct characteristics that the various groups of women have and how these characteristics predispose them to unique forms of emotional abuse. Campbell and Lewandowski (2007) declare that factors such culture, age, and the sex of the partner influence the emotional abuse experienced by women. It would therefore be important to review emotional abuse with a focus on the non -dominant groups of women experience.
Emotional Abuse in Different Groups
Refugee and Immigrant Women
Most literature does not cover refugee and immigrant women who are emotionally abused. Carson et al. (2002) cite social isolation as the primary form of emotional abuse meted out against this group. Refugee and immigrant women are vulnerable to emotional abuse due to the language barrier, limited relationship, challenges in settlement, and past encounters. These external challenges lead to refugee and immigrant women being isolated, thus predisposing them to being subjected to abuse.
Coker, Smith, McKeown and King (2000) argue that immigrant women are some of the most vulnerable to emotional abuse. If the immigrant woman’s partner is her sponsor in the foreign country, he might threaten her with deportation. The women are therefore unable to seek professional help for their abuse. Financial manipulation is also used against this group. Coker et al. (2000) document that Asian women are forced to live with unfaithful partners since they are threatened with abandonment.
Lesbians
Women in same sex relationships suffer from emotional abuse in a unique manner. Coker et al. (2000) declare that due to the homophobia that is prevalent in some societies, a woman in a lesbian relationship is vulnerable to IPV. To begin with, the relationship is concealed or covert to avoid the hostilities of a misogynist environment. The victim therefore suffers in isolation; an isolation compounded by intimidations from the abusive intimate partner. The abusive partner can threaten to reveal the relationship to relatives, friends or employer. The victim therefore suffers from esteem issues due to the fear of public ridicule and condemnation due to homophobia (Coker et al., 2000). As a result, the victim suffers from low self-esteem due to fear of the masses and public condemnation of lesbianism. In instances where the victim decides to speak up, she is likely to be criticized by the public due to the negative attitude towards homosexual relationships.
Older Women
Studies show that older women are vulnerable to emotional abuse just like younger women (Coker et al., 2000). The abuse may have begun at an early stage in the relationship or during old age. However, research indicates that abuse is more intense after retirement by one or both partners (Dearwater et al., 1998). During the work years, the woman may have enjoyed some personal freedom and space from the partner. This changes after retirement since the intimate partners are mostly confined to the home environment. Dearwater et al. (1998) declare that retirement aggravates the abusive partner’s sense of loneliness and intensifies his feelings of unworthiness and estrangement. Consequently, he directs his frustrations to the woman. In spite of the abuse, the older woman finds it hard to abandon the relationship due to the many years they have stayed together (Dearwater et al., 1998).
Teenage Women
While emotional abuse is attributed to adults, this form of IPV also occurs among young women. Research indicates that 28% of teenage women suffer from emotional abuse by their intimate partners (Dearwater et al., 1999). Male teenagers abuse their partners for reasons similar to those of adult males. In most instances, their objective is to exert control over the women. Teenagers are often manipulated by over possessive men who demand that their partners submit to all their demands.
Garcia-Moreno, Jansen, Ellsberg, Heise and Watts (2006) observe that it is hard for teenagers to detect emotional abuse because their intimate partners keep insisting that they love them. As a result, the young women end up attributing their situation to their immaturity. Ludermir, Lewis, Valongueiro, Araujo and Araya (2010) assert that abused teen women who may become reliant on their abusive partners to the extent that they cannot function properly without them.
Effects of Emotional Abuse
Emotional abuse has negative health impacts irrespective of whether it is accompanied by physical or sexual violence. Studies show that abusive behaviors adversely affect women’s self-concept and mental health (Weston, 2008; Raj & Silverman, 2002). Constant emotional abuse damages the psychological health of the woman. Raj and Silverman (2002) state that women suffer from psychological disorders that include stress, depression, and anxiety disorders due to emotional abuse. The self-esteem of the woman is also damaged by abuse. She is likely to lose confidence in herself and develop anxiety. According to Raj and Silverman (2002), the low self-esteem leaves women susceptible to anxious attachment. In addition to this, the analytical capacity of women is also affected by abuse. Raj and Silverman (2002) explain that emotional abuse leads to traumatic bonding that causes the woman to comply with all demands of the abusive partner out of fear of losing them.
The victim of emotional abuse may suffer from some physical consequences. Research indicates that the abuse might result in functional limitations such as difficulty walking and performing usual activities (Yoshihama et al., 2009). This observation is supported by Weston (2008) who documents that the general functioning of women is affected by emotional abuse. These physical results of IPV are hard to associate with emotional abuse since there is no obvious link. Yoshihama et al. (2009) observe that many health care providers do not immediately see the link between emotional abuse and physical distress reported by the woman. They may therefore fail to offer the necessary medical treatment or to address the underlying issues troubling the woman. The abused woman therefore continues to suffer from a low quality of life since she has difficulty enjoying daily activities.
Dealing with Emotional Abuse
Emotional abuse is detrimental to the emotional and psychological well being of the victim. In addition to this, Karakurt and Silver (2013) warn that emotional abuse often degenerates into physical abuse against the woman. It is therefore important to deal with this form of abuse at an early stage in order to promote not only the emotional and psychological well-being of the woman, but also to prevent the imminent physical spousal abuse.
The first step to dealing with emotional abuse is identifying it. Many women suffer from this abuse for years without realizing it. Karakurt and Silver (2013) assert that women should be empowered to recognize signs of emotional abuse and react to it. Once the woman has recognized that she is being abused, she can proceed to get help from law enforcement officials or mental health professionals.
Health care providers can play an important role in preventing emotional abuse. Yoshihama et al. (2009) document that abused women have many encounters with health care workers since they make greater use of health care services than women who have not experienced IPV. Health care facilities should develop a protocol for detecting and responding to IPV cases. In cases where emotional abuse is suspected, the facility should have a system for confirming this. In addition to this, health care workers should therefore be trained in working with women experiencing emotional abuse. Through training, these professionals will be able to identify the subtle signs of emotional abuse and proceed to offer the victims the help needed (Yoshihama et al., 2009).
Conclusion
This paper set out to discuss this damaging form of abuse against women and expound on how and why it is perpetrated. It began by defining emotional abuse as any psychological abuse carried out by the intimate partner with the aim of manipulating or controlling the woman. The paper highlighted that emotional abuse is perpetrated due to insecurities, excessive possessiveness, and jealousy. Emotional abuse is a damaging form of violence perpetrated by intimate partners. This abuse has a wide range of negative health consequences to the victim. The paper has included some steps that can be taken to prevent emotional abuse. By adopting the measures, incidents of this IPV can be mitigated or even eliminated. This will ensure that women do not suffer from the adverse health effects caused by emotional abuse.
References
Campbell, J. (2004). Helping women understand their risk in situations of intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19(12), 1464-1477. Web.
Campbell, J., & Lewandowski, L. (2007). Mental and physical health effects of intimate partner violence on women and children. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 20(2), 353-374. Web.
Campbell, J., & Soeken, K. (2008). Forced sex and intimate partner violence effects on women’s risk and women’s health. Violence Against Women, 5(9), 1017-1035. Web.
Carson, B., McNutt, L., Choi, D., & Rose, I. (2002). Intimate partner abuse and mental health: The role of social support and other protective factors. Violence Against Women, 8(6), 720-745. Web.
Coker, A., Smith, P., McKeown, R., & King, M. (2000). Frequency and correlates of intimate partner violence by type: Physical, sexual, and psychological battering. American Journal of Public Health, 90(4), 553-559. Web.
Dearwater, S., Coben, J., Campbell, J., Nah, G., Glass, N., McLoughlin, E., & Bekemeier, B. (1998). Prevalence of intimate partner abuse in women treated at community hospital emergency departments. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 280(2), 433-438. Web.
Follingstad, D., & Edmundson, M. (2010). Is Psychological Abuse Reciprocal in Intimate Relationships? Data from a National Sample of American Adults. Journal of Family Violence, 25(5), 495-508. Web.
Garcia-Moreno, C., Jansen, H., Ellsberg, M., Heise, L., & Watts, C. (2006). Prevalence of intimate partner violence: Findings from the WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence. The Lancet, 368(9543), 7-13. Web.
Karakurt, G., & Silver, K.E. (2013). Emotional abuse in intimate relationships: The role of gender and age. Violence Vict , 28(5), 804–821. Web.
Ludermir, A., Lewis, G., Valongueiro, S., Araujo, T., & Araya, R. (2010). Violence against women by their intimate partner during pregnancy and postnatal depression: A prospective cohort study. The Lancet, 376(9744), 11-17. Web.
Raj, A., & Silverman, J. (2002). Violence against immigrant women: The roles of culture, context, and legal immigrant status on intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 8(3), 367-398. Web.
Queen, J., Brackley, M., & Williams, G. (2009). Being Emotionally Abused: A Phenomenological Study of Adult Women’s Experiences of Emotionally Abusive Intimate Partner Relationships. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 30(4), 237-245. Web.
Weston, R. (2008). Insecure Attachment Mediates Effects of Partners’ Emotional Abuse and Violence on Women’s Relationship Quality. Journal of Family Violence, 23(6), 483-493. Web.
Yoshihama, M., Horrocks, J., & Kamano, S. (2009). The Role of Emotional Abuse in Intimate Partner Violence and Health Among Women in Yokohama, Japan. American Journal of Public Health, 99(4), 647-653. Web.