Introduction
Commonly held values and norms in society are reflected in popular culture. Among the many things that fall under this category are media products, forms of entertainment, prevailing styles, and lexical norms. Popular culture is also the sum of its most widely shared activities, ideas, and objects. Different theories are used in the analysis and understanding of popular culture. These theories include functionalism, conflict theory, interactionism, and Frankfurt school theory. While some of these theories are useful in studying popular culture, they also can be less useful. These theories have their strengths and weaknesses in studying popular culture. It is essential to analyze and critique ideas or concepts of popular culture to assess their usefulness and uselessness in studying popular culture using these theories.
Functionalism Theory
The focus of functionalism, a structural theory, is on the interdependence of societal institutions like the family, the school system, the economy, and the state. A structural approach, sometimes compared to a machine in which everyone is under the control of a central authority, takes a macro view of society and ensures cultural continuity from one generation to the next by adhering to its norms and notions (Ormerod 1876).
Blinded by its idealized view of society, functionalists focus on groups rather than individuals. Sociologists frequently analogize the human body to illustrate this concept, saying that the brain symbolizes religion, the heart represents the family, the lungs represent the economy, the liver represents the law, the intestines suggest education, and the bladder indicates health care (Ormerod 1877). The essential tenet of this theory is that the collapse of even one social institution will lead to the collapse of society as a whole. Everyone experiences functionalism at various points in their lives, starting with the initial socialization of children through primary socialization and continuing through secondary socialization in formal educational settings.
According to functionalists, the various cultural classifications serve a variety of purposes. The benefits of belonging to a counterculture, a subculture, or a culture extend well beyond the confines of the group itself, as they provide meeting spaces for people with like-minded beliefs and goals. As a positive philosophy, Parson’s functionalist theory was the first sustained effort to develop a macro perspective (Parsons 69). Sociologists can use functionalism to study cultural practices like a marriage that are not essential to human survival. Functionalism and consensus value are at the heart of this theory, which centers on people coming to terms with the shared norms and values essential to their community’s well-being (Parsons 71). Given that schools would struggle to instill proper values and morals in children without parental guidance, functionalist theory demonstrates the interconnected nature of various societal pillars, including the media, the home, and formal education.
The functionalist explanation for the popularity of celebrities, sports, and other forms of mass media center on their ability to bring people together. As religion was seen as the framework that held societies and civilizations together, functionalism (view) likely originated in religious thought. A community can feel closer to one another by emphasizing shared rituals and traditions. This is often the case with American sports like baseball, where the in-game patterns have more profound symbolic significance. Music festivals and concerts also create unity because they allow attendees to share a common experience. The different forms of sports, media, and celebrities in people’s culture become valuable because they help them understand what it is like to be human. They also help to provide a forum for introspective self-analysis through which people may converse with themselves.
As a sociological theory, functionalism has drawbacks due to its oversimplified, top-down approach to social analysis or, in other words, macro-level analysis. Functionalism ignores the hierarchical power structures of the subject and the ruling class, patriarchy, and ethnic groups (Hunter and Kent 31). According to this theory, societal shifts occur less due to individuals acquiring new values and more due to natural processes. Incredible insights into social change are provided by functionalism. Another is that difficulties inside social groupings are overlooked by functionalism because it pays little attention to what values form the basis of the value consensus.
Functionalism fails to account for societal development and minimizes the importance of individual agency. The functionalist worldview centers on the study of society and its institutions. Only in the context of larger social systems can individuals matter, for instance, social position and status in patterns of social relations. Furthermore, some critics of functionalism object to the view that societal requirements must be met (Ormerod 1884). They argue that society is not alive the same way an individual is active; the community does not have any needs. Because it minimizes the importance of individuals, functionalism is less likely to see how people can influence social systems through their actions.
Since functionalism is so preoccupied with maintaining social stability, it cannot account for the dynamics that underlie social change. According to the functionalist view, any established social institution has to be there for some reason. Of course, some institutions will fade over time, and others will emerge. There exists a difficulty in using functionalism to explain why or how the function of some aspect of societal life could change. This is because of functionalism’s concentration on parts of social life about their existing process rather than their primary functions.
Conflict Theory
Conflict theorists, on the other hand, believe that society is fundamentally unequal due to power differentials based on factors such as class, gender, color, and age. A correlation exists between conflict theory and Marxism theory. According to conflict theorists, conventional teaching approaches further entrench societal privilege and the prevailing culture (Joseph 23). The central concept and ideas of the conflict theory are the impact of materialism and industrialization or economic production in society. For instance, developed countries rely on technology, and developing countries lack access to education and advanced infrastructure.
Conflict theorists oppose the functionalist point of view since they affirm that society’s mode of producing goods has repercussions across the rest of its culture. Those with less control over their lives are less likely to benefit from cultural shifts. Conflict theorists examine how some people get power and privilege by using and reinforcing a dominant culture that keeps them in their place in society (Joseph 20). On the other hand, functionalists consider that the goal of culture is to help people get through life and keep communities running smoothly.
Marxism, a conflict theory, is based on the idea that different social groupings compete for access to limited resources, leading to friction and war. Marxism analyzes the struggle between the ruling class (the bourgeoisie) and the working class (the proletariat). It also considers monetary and other economic resources and the oligarchy that controls them (Cockerham and Graham 25). Karl Marx was the first to propose the Marxist theory. Since people live in a capitalist society, the fact that the minority ruling class owns the forces of production and the majority working class does not is a source of friction in society.
Marxism’s usefulness lies in its status as a structural theory and in how it connects the superstructure’s most essential institutions. Feminism, another social theory heavily influenced by Marxism, also features gender conflict. In contrast to functionalism, Marxism places a premium on the economy and society’s dependence on the economy. An aspect of Marxism that may be traced back to consideration of the individual’s perspective on society is the concept of alienation (Cockerham and Graham 30). It reveals how people evaluate the structure of society and how they perceive their place within it.
A conflict theory is helpful in the analysis of the digital divide manifested in different levels of access to media and technology. Conflict theorists also investigate questions of media ownership and how mainstream outlets tend to cater to the interests of the middle class and the affluent in the United States at the expense of the working class and minorities (Berger 34). Furthermore, some conflict theorists argue that the biased nature of the U.S. media is a direct outcome of how it is produced. Those with more resources are better able to influence the media, discredit their rivals, and increase their visibility.
For instance, the release of new technologies, the timing of those releases, and the types of media made available to the public are all subject to gatekeeping exercised by influential individuals and societal institutions. Hegemonic media allows one race, gender, or social class to dominate a culturally diverse society and establish its perspective as the norm through the media. New media are eroding the power of traditional media gatekeepers. Sites like YouTube and Facebook have allowed a larger audience to exchange material online freely, and users of these sites have begun to self-police in response. If a user sees something they think is wrong, they should report it so that moderators can take care of it.
This criticism of conflict theory stems from its purported inability to account for how various economic classes might mutually benefit from one another through interaction. For instance, according to conflict theory, the dynamic between employers and workers is fraught since both sides aim to maximize their respective financial gains at the expense of the other. However, working relationships between employees and employers are typically amicable. Pension plans and stock-based pay further erode this distinction by providing employees with a financial interest in the company’s performance.
Feminism is also viewed as a conflict theory that focuses on the exploitation of women by patriarchy. As a feminist social theory, it is skewed toward the experiences of females. Feminists seek to examine the structures of male power and the boundaries they set for women (Ferreday and Geraldine 240). It also explores the roles that women play in today’s society. Feminism is a social movement that challenges the traditional part of males as heads of households and society at large. This theory considers the social challenges of women and advocates for significantly more rights and authority for women. It discusses how ideology normalizes male domination and encourages men to dominate women. The advancement of women’s rights in the modern world has contributed to the rise of feminism, but the movement is still lacking in some parts of the world. Patriarchy restricts women’s rights and examines men’s views of women as role models. There is a metaphorical glass ceiling that prevents women from advancing in their careers and demonstrates how sexism is largely unnoticed.
Feminism is beneficial since it guarantees women’s equality with men but also seeks to limit men’s liberties. Feminism encourages women to leave behind the traditional role of housewife, which may be both limiting and harmful to their personal and professional lives (Kerner 850). The birth of a kid increases the capitalist system’s support, providing more potential victims of false ideology and consumers. Even more so than in a more egalitarian culture, the expectations placed on men in a patriarchal one are unreasonable; in a patriarchal society, hegemonic masculinity, in which football and women are prioritized, is the norm. Of course, not all men are the stereotypical alpha males, and subservient masculinities are typically weaker and less respected than dominant ones. A good illustration of this is the relationship between homosexual masculinity.
Through the use of feminist concepts and ideas, sociologists have been able to examine some well-liked commercials, shows, and game sites. Women in most media conform to a set of standards and have a standard appearance that is generally accepted. Most are young, slim, white, and stunningly attractive. In the feminist theoretical framework, this idealized picture is considered pivotal in forming and maintaining stereotypes. Studies have revealed that media (especially advertising) increases gender stereotypes. One study showed that online female characters corresponding to gender stereotypes heighten negative views about women. There have been several attempts by for-profit media outlets to balance their political beliefs with their bottom lines.
In 1990, for instance, the feminist publication Ms. began a practice of publication without any paid advertising. Moreover, gender norms extend far beyond the realm of technology. Media portrayals of women tend to perpetuate harmful preconceptions, such as elevating physical attractiveness over intellectual or practical competence and demeaning those who break the mold of stereotypical female behavior.
Internationalism Theory
Interactionism theory places a premium on people’s everyday encounters with one another and the shared cultural understandings they bring to those encounters. It represents a relatively detailed examination by basing the concepts and ideas on a micro-level analysis. Culture, according to interactionists, is not the result of class differences in access but rather people’s interactions with one another and their interpretations of those interactions (Meltzer et al. 120).
From this vantage point of the theory, customs and traditions are maintained. Proponents see human interaction as a never-ending cycle of constructing meaning from experiences and the world around people. People use language to symbolize and convey one’s understanding of the symbolic meanings ascribed to all things and all actions. Cultural change, according to interactionists, is inevitable because of the interplay between individuals and their interpretation of shared meanings (Stryker 18). Those who study interactions between people learn how languages evolve. Word historians investigate etymological changes, semantic shifts, and word transmission from one language to another.
The social world, according to interactionism, is composed of people’s actions and exchanges with one another. Interactionism is an action theory, and action theories inform us that society’s structures have limited influence on individuals’ actions; for instance, not everyone has the same way of thinking about how criminals should be punished interactions (Meltzer et al. 90). Interactionism is based on qualitative data collection and the idea that people change in response to their social experiences, such as how they are treated or the circumstances in which they find themselves. By seeing themselves in other people’s shoes and experiencing the world through their eyes, interactionists can learn to understand the world as other people do.
Interactionism theory is helpful in popular culture since it points out the importance of symbols and how they influence people’s actions. Through the idea of interactionism, sociologists in popular culture can explain how people behave in more intimate settings. Sociologists can also acknowledge that one’s reality-based experiences may likely differ from others (Meltzer et al 80). The theory also takes into account the influence of context on learning. Through interactionalism, people can view individuals not as compliant subjects of socialization but as active, innovative participants in shaping their social reality.
However, interactionists have been criticized for failing to acknowledge the significance of social institutions and the power dynamics between these institutions and individuals. Interactionism, purportedly a social action theory, proposes that people gain meaning via their relationships with others (Meltzer et al. 50). This indicates that people actively analyze their social contacts and derive meaning from each. Below are the weaknesses of the interactionism theory of popular culture. The precise definition of a symbol may be lost in translation or misunderstood by a particular audience. Since Symbolic Interactionism is concerned with interpretations, it is inherently subjective and can make it hard to evaluate its predictions quantitatively. The theory ignores how much humans live in a world that is not of their own and exaggerates the level to which they have the power to shape their own experiences. Moreover, the theory minimizes the importance of a person’s emotional state in favor of a rational explanation for their actions.
Interactionist theories are criticized for placing too much emphasis on interactions as the key to unlocking the mysteries of human civilization. Social interactions are crucial in shaping an individual’s identity and individuals realize their hilarity when others share their mirth. However, people engage in hundreds of social encounters daily, the vast majority of which go unnoticed by the conscious mind. People indeed have emotional responses to interacting with others, but only the most significant encounters leave an indelible mark on our minds. Family, friends, and coworkers are more likely to have a substantial effect on an individual, and it may be argued that these relationships are, in turn, influenced by the social institutions in which they participate.
Frankfurt School Theory
The ‘Frankfurt school’ describes a group of German-American theorists who, after Marx’s classic theory was discredited, provided significant analyses of the transformations in Western capitalist nations. They made some of the earliest arguments in critical social theory on the role of media and popular culture in maintaining power structures. The Frankfurt School developed the earliest models of critical cultural studies that examine the politics of cultural texts, the reception and use of cultural artifacts by audiences, and the political economy and cultural production.
Combining textual analysis, political economy, and analysis of media’s social and ideological implications, the Frankfurt school created a critical and transdisciplinary approach to communications and cultural studies in the 1930s. They came up with the phrase “culture industry” to describe the financial imperatives behind the production of mass-produced culture and the industrialization that facilitated this process (Crozier 93). Critical theorists viewed all cultural artifacts disseminated by mass media as commodities produced by the culture industries. As such, they were subjected to the same standardization, commercialization, and massification processes as any other mass-produced good. However, the cultural sector explicitly gave intellectual legitimation to preexisting capitalist society and assimilated people into its lifestyle.
The critical theorists also looked at the cultural industries and how they function politically to integrate the working class into capitalist societies. In contrast to the conventional Marxist paradigm, in which the working class is to be the mechanism of revolution, the Frankfurt School thinkers were one of the first neo-Marxist groups to investigate the impact of media culture and the emergence of consumer culture on the working class (Szurmuk 18).
They examined how the media and consumer culture were reinforcing contemporary capitalism and looked for new methods of bringing about such a shift. They also looked for new organizations capable of bringing about such a transformation, and new examples of political liberation that could serve as benchmarks for social criticism and motivation for political action. They claimed that commercial interests dominated the media industry and conditioned its audiences to be subservient to consumer capitalism.
Conclusion
The theories of popular culture, functionalism, conflict theory, interactionalism, and Frankfurt school theory, play an essential role in the criticism and analysis of popular culture. These theories highlight the interconnections between people, places, institutions, and norms. They also provide insight into how material and social conditions shape experiences by closely paying attention to power relationships in everyday life. However, the concepts and ideas proposed by proponents of these theories face criticism from sociologists and scholars based on their application to popular culture. For instance, functionalism is criticized for only basing culture’s arguments on social interactions. Through these theories, however, sociologists study popular culture that serves as a unifier of sorts for society. Consuming things from the pop culture industry helps people develop a sense of self that ties them to society at large and boost one’s social standing.
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