Introduction
Gender and sexuality have played an important role in shaping different aspects of society and human life throughout the United States’ history. It is important to explore this topic to understand how binary systems and gender roles affect the distribution of power and opportunities for different social groups. The early colonial period, the prerevolutionary period, and the early Republican period will be considered to justify the argument. Such an approach will help identify how gender and sexuality have impacted daily life in the British colonies of North America and in the United States. The use of primary and secondary sources can provide different perspectives on the issue, revealing the viewpoints of contemporaries and historians. This essay aims to discuss the impact of gender and sexuality on colonial America, slavery, as well as social order of the colonies and the United States.
Throughout American history, gender and sexuality have been used to establish social, political, educational, medical, economic, and legal systems. Research shows that gender and sexual hierarchies in the United States are interconnected with such concepts as white supremacy, racism, sexism, and slavery, which, in turn, are encompassed by oppression and colonialism. Therefore, it is essential to explore the implications of gender and sexuality throughout history. This paper focuses on three distinct epochs: the early colonial, the prerevolutionary, and the early Republican period.
The Early Colonial Period
Gender roles and definitions of sexuality differed among Native American, African, and European cultures in the early colonial period. Generally, American Indian males traveled and explored the land, and females stayed in the villages doing household work, performing manual labor, farming, and raising children. As per Taylor’s American Colonies: The Settling of North America, in 1500 B.C., there were “gender structured work roles: men were responsible for fishing and hunting, while women harvested and prepared wild plants” (9). Native tribes were characterized by matrilineal social order (Taylor 9). In this regard, traditional roles of Native American males, such as hunting and fishing, were considered leisure activities by European settlers.
In contrast to Native American and European cultures, African gender roles were less structured and limiting, assuming an equal distribution of responsibility for household and community activities among family members. Extended families are a typical distinguishing characteristic of the Black culture. According to Lepore’s “Africans in America,” African women could actively participate in economic and social life (125). However, in colonial America, the gender and sexual norms of Africans and the structure of Black families were affected by slavery. Traditional European gender roles were imposed on the colonies, with female subordination and dependency on their husbands.
As can be seen from the secondary sources discussed above, the diversity of Native American and African cultures was suppressed through colonization and patriarchal values, which shaped the daily life of the population. Moreover, sexuality and gender norms cemented relations among Native American, African, and European groups by establishing traditional perspectives on marriage, family, and daily life (Cobbs et al., “Witchcraft in Seventeenth Century America” 62). Traditional gender roles of the three groups became the source of conflict as indigenous cultures were oppressed, and the nuclear family structure was established as the norm.
The Prerevolutionary Period
The prerevolutionary period was characterized by the colonial crisis and wars. Between 1750 and 1775, the balance of power shifted, and territorial disputes occurred among the Iroquois, British, French, and the Ohio natives (Tyler 421). Baym explains how Iroquois was established in her “The Iroquois Creation Story” (28). In this regard, Puritans and their moral values defined how gender shaped Euro-American society in the colonies. For instance, Tyler notes that Puritans viewed Indians as wild and pagan people and supported gender division of labor (189). Women were regarded as subordinate to men, which is evident from primary and secondary sources regarding this period.
For instance, Puritan beliefs were based on religion, highlighting the sinful human nature and females’ subordination, which is why the concept of witchcraft was gendered, and the Salem Witch Trials occurred. As Norton mentions in her “Witchcraft in Seventeenth Century America,” “women were vulnerable to witchcraft accusations not only during the Salem outbreak but also until the end of the 17th century (80). Puritans denied homosexuality which was named sodomy at the time and considered unacceptable and shameful. Therefore, Puritan New England’s impact on social rules and traditions was significant in the prerevolutionary period.
Furthermore, white supremacy and patriarchy developed in the South as a result of unequal distribution of power among genders and races. White males were associated with the notions of power and superiority above Indians and Africans, in particular, women (Cobbs et al., “The Transportation, Market, and Communication Revolutions” 233). Therefore, exploitation and oppression of the Black population, as well as women’s labor, was widespread (Tyler 190). As a result, gender and sexuality became central to the establishment of social order and the expansion of the slave trade in colonial America and the United States.
The Early Republican Period
The early Republican period was characterized by transition, change, and aspirations toward independence and equality. According to “The Making of the Constitution” by Cobbs et al., many Americans “were not convinced of the wisdom of the Constitution or optimistic about its meaning for the future of the United States” (134). In the early 19th century, the dynamics of political and social activism were shaped by gender and sexuality as feminist and abolitionist movements began. In this regard, the traditional ideals and roles began to change as antislavery and feminist beliefs spread in America. As Cobbs et al. emphasize in “The American Revolution,” “every unfulfilled element of the Revolution – abolition of slavery; … greater women’s rights; the integrity of Native American land … – reemerged” in the early 19th century (133). Furthermore, the revival, spread, and practice of slavery before the Civil War was observed in Southern US primarily to grow cotton (Tyler 200). This type of work was considered labor-intensive, and according to gender and racial stereotypes, it was unsuitable for white men. In other words, even after the American Revolution, slavery and white supremacy continued to affect social order.
Conclusion
To conclude, gender and sexuality were essential factors shaping different aspects of society and human life throughout the history of the United States. Oppressive beliefs and practices impacted the way communities interacted and defined social order. The overview of different sources revealed that gender and sexuality and the associated stereotypes and bias influenced the colonization process during the early colonial, the prerevolutionary, and the early Republican period. Gender and sexual hierarchies are linked with white supremacy, racism, sexism, and slavery, which can be viewed as elements of oppression and colonialism.
Works Cited
Baym, Nina. “The Iroquois Creation Story.” The Norton Anthology of American Literature, edited by Nina Baym et al., 4th ed., Norton & Co, 1995, pp. 28-30.
Cobbs, Elizabeth, et al. “The American Revolution.” Major Problems in American History: Documents and Essays, edited by Elizabeth Cobbs Hoffman et al., Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2012, pp. 102-133.
“The Making of the Constitution.” Major Problems in American History: Documents and Essays, edited by Elizabeth Cobbs Hoffman et al., Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2012, pp. 134-135.
“The Transportation, Market, and Communication Revolutions of the Early Nineteenth Century.” Major Problems in American History: Documents and Essays, edited by Elizabeth Cobbs Hoffman et al., Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2012, pp. 231-262.
Lepore, Jill. “Africans in America.” Encounters in the New World: A History in Documents, edited by Jill Lepore, Oxford University Press, 2000, pp. 125-146.
Norton, Mary Beth. “Witchcraft in Seventeenth Century America.” Major Problems in American Women’s History: Documents and Essays, edited by Mary Beth Norton, D.C. Heath, 1989, pp. 49-81.
Taylor, Alan. American Colonies: The Settling of North America. Penguin, 2002.