Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a debilitating psychiatric disorder that develops after exposure to severe trauma. PTSD is associated with “intrusive memories, distressing dreams, dissociative reactions, avoidance of trauma-related stimuli, negative cognition and mood, increased arousal and irritability, and clinically significant distress and impairment in functioning” (Abdallah et al., 2019, p. 171). According to statistics, about 70% of the world population has been exposed to traumatic events, of which about 6% develop symptoms of PTSD (Abdallah et al., 2019, p. 171).
PTSD symptoms can develop in a variety of populations who have experienced psychological or physical trauma. This includes children and adults who have experienced episodes of abuse, sexual abuse, psychological trauma, accidents, disasters, and other serious events at any stage of their lives. However, combat-exposed Veterans have the highest risk of developing PTSD, among whom the prevalence of the disorder reaches 25% (Abdallah et al., 2019, p. 172). Maio et al. (2018) emphasize that the “rate for PTSD ranges from 5.4 to 16.8% in military service members and veterans” (p. 3). This rate is two times higher than the rate for other groups of the population.
The prevalence of PTSD among men and women is, on average, the same. However, there are significant differences in the reasons why PTSD develops depending on gender. For example, in the military, PTSD most often develops in men based on combat experience, while in women due to sexual trauma (Maio et al., 2018). Other studies confirm that women are more likely to develop PTSD as a result of trauma from interpersonal interaction, while men are more likely to be subject to military traumatic experiences (Hiscox et al., 2021; Taha & Sijbrandij, 2021). However, no significant differences in the prevalence of PTSD among genders have been identified.
PTSD is a complex disorder and often leads to the development of co-occurring disorders, including depression, substance use, and physical health problems. Researchers note that “more than 80% of PTSD patients share one or more comorbidities” (Miao et al., 2018, p. 3). Thus, PTSD is an extremely dangerous disorder, the symptoms of which can lead to significant negative consequences.
Causes of the Disorder
The main reason for the development of PTSD is exposure to traumatic experiences at any stage of a person’s life. Such traumatic events are most often participation in military conflicts or terrorist attacks, as well as being a witness to violence or the killing of other people, which can lead to the development of secondary trauma (Maio et al., 2018). PTSD often develops in survivors of natural disasters, including floods, earthquakes, or pandemics. A job in which the individual is often exposed to distressing situations, such as in emergency services, can also cause the disorder (Abdallah et al., 2019). PTSD can also often develop in survivors of various accidents, such as car or plane crashes. Sexual assault, as well as other forms of harassment and bullying, including discrimination based on race, sexual orientation, physical and psychological characteristics, and other characteristics, is a common cause of PTSD.
Stigmas
PTSD, like other psychological disorders, is often found in a highly stigmatized society. Because of the symptoms of PTSD, people with this disorder may be stigmatized as socially dangerous or unpredictable both in society and by their family members. This can lead to the development of a strong sense of embarrassment and self-blame in the person with the disorder, which can aggravate the symptoms and lead to the development of other disorders. A dangerous myth in society regarding PTSD is that the disorder exists solely in the mind of the individual. However, traumatic experiences can result in severe changes in the brain, causing severe symptoms that require complex treatment (Abdallah et al., 2019). Finally, people often mistakenly believe that people with PTSD cannot return to society and normal life. However, with the right treatment, people with the disorder can minimize the negative impact of symptoms and reintegrate effectively into society.
Symptoms of the Disorder
PTSD has a number of characteristic symptoms that can also be present in other psychological disorders. First of all, people with the disorder experience intrusive memories, including unwanted distressing memories of the traumatic event, flashbacks, nightmares, and severe emotional or physical reactions when encountering a reminder of the event. Additionally, people with PTSD avoid muffling or talking about the traumatic event and avoid contact with any reminders of it (places, people, activities, etc.). The disorder is also characterized by the occurrence of negative thoughts about oneself, feelings of hopelessness, memory problems, feeling detached from loved ones and difficulties in building relationships, loss of interest in various activities, difficulty experiencing positive emotions, and a feeling of emotional numbness. Finally, people with PTSD may experience irritability, outbursts of anger or aggression, constant emotional or physical tension, self-destructive behavior, sleep disturbances, and extreme guilt or shame.
Treatments
One of the treatments for PTSD is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), which helps the patient with the disorder recognize behavioral patterns that prevent them from coping with the traumatic experience. The advantage of this method is not only the ability to eliminate negative symptoms but also teaching the patient the necessary skills for coping if any symptoms arise again (Watkins et al., 2018).
The second method of psychotherapy that is often used in combination with CBT is exposure therapy (ET), which allows the patient to re-experience some aspects of the traumatic episode in order to learn to cope with the trauma. One of the benefits of this approach is its high efficiency in eliminating symptoms such as nightmares and flashbacks (Watkins et al., 2018).
Treatment of PTSD is often supported by drug therapy with antidepressants known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), such as sertraline or paroxetine (Abdallah et al., 2019). The advantage of including medications in therapy is the ability to alleviate the symptoms of the disorder before a sustained positive effect of psychotherapy occurs.
References
Abdallah, C. G., Averill, L. A., Akiki, T. J., Raza, M., Averill, C. L., Gomaa, H., Adikey, A., & Krystal, J. H. (2019). The neurobiology and pharmacotherapy of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 6(59), 171-189. Web.
Hiscox, L. V., Hiller, R., Fraser, A., Rabie, S., Stewart, J., Seedat, S., Tomlinson, M., Halligan, S. L. (2021). Sex differences in post-traumatic stress disorder in a high adversity cohort of South African adolescents: An examination of depressive symptoms, age, and trauma type as explanatory factors. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), 1-11. Web.
Miao, X. R., Chen, Q. B., Wei, K., Tao, K. M., & Lu, Z. J. (2018). Posttraumatic stress disorder: From diagnosis to prevention. Military Medical Research, 5(23), 1-7. Web.
Taha, P. H., & Sijbrandij, M. (2021). gender differences in traumatic experiences, PTSD, and relevant symptoms among the Iraqi internally displaced persons. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(18), 1-11. Web.
Watkins, L. E., Sprang, K. R., & Rothbaum, B. O. (2018). Treating PTSD: A review of evidence-based psychotherapy interventions. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 12, 1-9. Web.