The songs and legends of Gilgamesh were recorded in cuneiform on clay tablets in four ancient languages of the Middle East – Sumerian, Akkadian, Hurrian, and Hittite; in addition, references to him were preserved in the Greek writer Elian and the medieval Syrian writer Theodore Bar-Conai. Already the oldest, so-called Old Babylonian version of the Akkadian epic represents a new stage in the artistic development of Mesopotamian literature. This version contains all the main features of the final version of the epic, but it was significantly shorter than it; so, it lacked the introduction and conclusion of the later version, and probably the story of the great flood.
From the Old Babylonian version of the poem six or seven unrelated fragments have survived, badly damaged, written in illegible cuneiform cursive and, at least in one case, in the hand of a student. The Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh is rightly ranked among the masterpieces of the ancient classics (Balentine, 2020). But it is valuable not only for its artistic merits. Thanks to it, researchers can compare this monument with other available written sources to trace the genesis of the image of the protagonist.
Evolution of the Image of Gilgamesh
The image of the hero Gilgamesh occupies an important place in the art of ancient Dvurech’e and neighboring countries. Already in ancient Elam were images of a humanoid lion fighting a wild bull and a humanoid bull (Balentine, 2020). It is possible to see in these figures prototypes of the Sumerian images of the hero fighting the bull, and the human bull fighting the lion; in the myth which they illustrate. It is possible to see a myth about those deities who were prototypes of images of Gilgamesh and his friend, wild person Enkidu. It is not yet the heroes themselves who bore these names – the tale was probably later associated with the name of Gilgamesh, a Sumerian figure of the 28th-27th centuries B.C., but the myth must presumably be older than the name. The depiction of a shaggy-naked hero fighting a bull or a lion, or a monster that is half bull and half man, becomes one of the most common motifs in Sumerian glyptics, and in general in the fine art of the early dynastic period.
In the art of the Two Rivers the images of the favorite folk hero and his friend thus underwent changes in the course of history. To understand these changes the evolution of the image of Gilgamesh in literature should be analyzed. Mythological motifs in the fine arts of ancient Dvurech’e are not necessarily direct illustrations of literary works: a myth, once established, continued to live beyond its literary reflection; but there is no doubt that the development of the image in literature and in the fine arts followed parallel paths, being conditioned by similar social and ideological reasons (Balentine, 2020). This paper focuses on the development of the image of Gilgamesh in literature, where this process can be traced more clearly and deeply.
Judging from the texts, Gilgamesh was also very early deified. This name becomes especially common at the end of the 2nd millennium BC, under the rulers of the third dynasty of Ur, who tried to revive the ancient Sumerian historical tradition and emphasize the antiquity of their origin. It is possible that such a rapid deification of the ruler is also explained by his outstanding historical merits and the brightness of the personality of the conquering leader.
Epic of Gilgamesh Analysis
First of all, it is necessary to highlight the heroic image used in the Epic of Gilgamesh. In the first part of the work, the hero explores and learns the basic values relevant to his time. The main aspiration of the character becomes the search for and achievement of immortality. Gilgamesh becomes successful in achieving the aforementioned goals, as he finds immortality in immortalizing his own name through exploits. In his battle with Enkidou, the character develops a loyal ally who later contributes to the heroes’ main battle with the goddess Ishtar (Walt & Keener, 2019). Nevertheless, the main problem is Gilgamesh’s self-confidence and ambition, which prove to be the source of the quarrel and the insult to the gods.
Gilgamesh is only introduced to the harshness and inevitability of death after he loses his only friend in battle. Along with this new awareness comes the thought of his own end (Pryke, 2019). Horror, overwhelming fear of death overwhelms him: Gilgamesh is possessed by this obsessive fear, he wants to live forever. Genuine immortality, an unattainable goal, is the only thing Gilgamesh now strives for.
Gilgamesh’s quest for actual immortality is even more daring; it is a challenge to the human existence as such to refute and outwit all the dangers of mortals. And in the final it is Gilgamesh’s own human nature that declares itself: it is precisely his original human weakness, the moment of carelessness, that ruins him. He has no one to blame but himself: he himself has made an unforgivable mistake (Pryke, 2019). The superhuman effort he has made has led to a result that seems almost comical. An indication that Gilgamesh did well is an unusual bright sense of humor and a smile. Thus, the epic uses symbolism that reveals human feelings and reflections precisely through indirect characteristics rather than through dialogue.
Analysis of Idealism
The masculine reality and its realization comes after the heroic idealism, and acquires a new depth in the narrative. It is important to highlight how Gilgamesh is described in the epic, namely as a young man who is permanently growing up and learning about the world, gaining wisdom. Like Barry’s Peter Pan, he does not want to become an adult (Walt & Keener, 2019). His first encounter with Enkidu is a refusal to marry in order to preserve his boyhood friendship, and in the episode with the heavenly bull he rejects Ishtar’s marriage proposal. Ishtar prophesies misfortune and death to him. Therefore, after Enkidu’s death, Gilgamesh does not move forward to seek a new commonwealth in marriage, but retreats back, seeking at least in imagination to find safety in the land of childhood. In his encounter with the hostess of the tavern, he again resolutely rejects marriage and children as acceptable goals in life and eventually, having safely navigated the waters of death, reaches his ancestors (Dalley, 2008). On the island of the ancestors, where Ut-napishtim and his wife live, as in childhood, there is neither age nor death. In accordance with his image, Ut-napishtim makes a stern attempt to make Gilgamesh realize his responsibility as an adult. He gives him a visual lesson – it is a contest with sleep; he is willing to make Gilgamesh experience its inevitable consequences. Uth-napishtim’s wife, as mother, is more forgiving: she even allows him to achieve his desired goal – let him obtain the flower Gilgamesh escapes death, avoids old age, even maturity; he seeks peace and security in the land of childhood.
Gilgamesh appears quite differently in the Sumerian songs. It has already been noted that the Sumerian Gilgamesh is close to the heroes of a fairy tale. Moreover, the Sumerian hero’s image emphasizes certain real features of him as a tribal leader and ruler: he is a military leader, a commander, who leads important campaigns and calls for battles, in addition, he is a priest, and in connection with this he has some features of a shaman-sorcerer, which is quite natural (Dalley, 2008). And if in the Sumerian poem about Gilgamesh and Huwab the “rudiments of that philosophical reflection characteristic of the Akkadian poem – the idea of the mortality of man and the immortality of glory” are already visible, then in general it is certainly very clear how much the Sumerian image is not developed in comparison with the image of the Akkadian hero.
So, it can roughly be imagined how the hero of the protagonist of the Akkadian epic arose and developed; in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC this image was still associated with a really living powerful ruler whose exploits were described in songs. Possibly, immediately after his death he also began to be venerated as a patron-ancestor and was attributed the deeds described in the older songs related to the rite. The first attempts to deify the mighty ancestor ruler may also refer to the same time. But the image is still so close and familiar that in all Sumerian songs the heroic features of Gilgamesh are comparatively little hyperbolized.
Conclusion
Comparison of a number of similar episodes in Sumerian songs and the Akkadian epic makes it possible to present the ways of development not only of the image of the protagonist of the Gilgamesh epic, but also of heroic epic in general. The image of the Akkadian writing compared to the Sumerian Gilgamesh is not only more clearly elaborated. It includes some features of other Sumerian heroes as well. All these data convincingly outline the way the epic was composed of individual songs through epic development of the motif, a thoughtful selection of features that characterized the image definitely, clearly and colorfully.
Although the ancient city of Babylon was destroyed and ceased to exist, the ideas that originated there spread throughout the world and continue to manifest themselves in various guises today. The desire for technological development, the worship of the power and strength of human intellect, the thirst for enrichment, the pursuit of pleasure. The greediness and covetousness, in the language of the Synodical translation of the Bible, which are the root of all evil. On the other hand, against the backdrop of global technological progress, external prosperity, glitz and respectability, the number of people living below the poverty line is growing. Technological progress is accompanied by a depletion of natural resources and climate change on the planet.
References
Balentine, S. E. (2020). The Oxford handbook of ritual and worship in the Hebrew Bible. Oxford University Press.
Dalley, S. (2008). Myths from Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press.
Pryke, L. M. (2019). Gilgamesh. Taylor & Francis.
Walt, J. H., and Keener, C. S. (2019). NRSV, cultural backgrounds study Bible. Bringing to life ancient world of sculpture. Zondervan.