Introduction
In 2020, the world was facing a pandemic. People were forced to isolate themselves, changed their standard form of life, and communication moved to the virtual space. The interaction between adults and adolescents is built according to a new scheme in a remote state through platforms and applications. In the modern world, the role of social media is increasing. It is of particular interest to adolescents whose personality has not yet been fully formed, which is why social media can strongly influence the development of people in this age period. Valkenburg et al. (2022) assert that adolescence is the most challenging and complex of all childhood ages, representing a period of personality formation. This period is distinguished by personal instability, the emergence of a sense of adulthood, and a change in leading activities for communication with peers, which is often carried out through social media.
A study by Anderson and Jiang (2018) shows that about 90% of adolescents aged 14 to 17 use social media daily or almost daily; 9% use social media several times a week, and only 1% of teenagers do not use social media. Based on the preceding, the question arises, does social media help or hurt adolescents’ mental health? Some researchers have considered that social media use is associated with beneficial mental health outcomes, while others have found that social media use is associated with adverse mental health outcomes. Therefore, this study aims to assess the current relationship between social media use and its impact on adolescent mental health.
Methods
The literature review includes both positive and negative effects of social media use on adolescent mental health. The data search and validation protocol are based on the Preferred Reporting Items and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. Key search terms were social media, mental health, adolescents, mental illness, nursing, education, depression, and anxiety. Inclusion criteria: publications in the last five years, 2018-2022, in English, primary sources, and scientific publications. Exclusion criteria included: publications published before 2018 that were not in English, non-primary sources, and non-research publications. Sources include research inside and outside the United Kingdom to show that this is a global problem and increase knowledge about it. The primary search databases were Google Scholar and Crossref. Based on the inclusion criteria, 49 articles were selected, 18 of which were included in the review.
Literature Review
Social Media
Before considering the impact of social media on adolescents’ mental health, it is important to define what researchers mean by social media. Researchers interpret the concept of social media differently, but most of them usually use the same websites and applications in their research. For example, Anderson and Jiang (2018) looked at Youtube, Instagram, Snapchat, Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr, and Reddit. In turn, Velozo and Stauder (2018) define social media as an online platform that allows users to interact with each other. These include messaging applications such as Whatsapp, and Viber, various chats, social networking websites such as Facebook and Twitter, photo-sharing applications such as Snapchat and Periscope, and online games, including Warcraft (Velozo and Stauder, 2018). A similar opinion is shared by Gordon et al. (2021), arguing that social media are any online platforms that permit users to create a personal profile and interact, share and view content online. Valkenburg et al. (2022) explored the impact of social media on adolescents’ mental health, focusing on platforms such as Instagram, Snapchat., Facebook, WeChat, and WhatsApp.
Thus, most of the research is focused on Instant Messaging (IM) and Social Networking Site (SNS) because these platforms show a stronger association with adolescent mental health than other platforms. Each of these web technologies facilitates social interaction through mobile technologies in one way or another (Beard et al., 2019), enabling self-disclosure and self-presentation and allowing users to form their social presence in the online world (Dewa et al., 2019). IM involves sending and receiving real-time messages to another Internet user (Zeeni et al., 2018). In turn, SNS are services that allow individuals to create a public or semi-public profile on the network, access other users’ content, post content, and communicate (Dewa et al., 2019). Being prevalent forms of social networking, instant messaging and social networking sites are significant aspects of the socialization of teenagers who use them.
Social Media and Communication Skills
According to O’Reilly et al. (2018), communication skills are the most crucial factor determining a person’s success in both professional and personal spheres. It is impossible to get a good job, achieve career growth, gain recognition in your social environment, and develop as a person without effective communication with other people (O’Reilly et al., 2018). Therefore, the problem of developing communication skills becomes especially relevant in adolescence, when young people are just starting to participate in public life activities and are trying to find ways to express their individuality.
According to Anderson and Jiang (2018), some social media users feel that it can hurt their relationships and reduce the amount of face-to-face communication. It can contribute to the deterioration of communication skills and the development of feelings of loneliness and isolation, which significantly harms psychological health (O’Reilly et al., 2018). Social media reduce the user’s communication skills in the real world and worsen the understanding of non-verbal symbols of communication and emotions (Zeeni et al., 2018). Active users of Internet sites have a specific style of communication. Zeeni et al. (2018) note that their speech contains the jargon inherent in virtual communication; they are less able to express their thoughts correctly and freely than others, try to speak briefly, use specific phrases, and are less inclined to express their feelings emotionally. Thus, based on Anderson and Jiang (2018), O’Reilly et al. (2018), and Zeeni et al. (2018) research, it can be concluded that social media use may be a risk factor for mental health problems in young people as it negatively impacts communication skills.
Social Media and Mental Disorders
Many researchers, including Bettmann et al. (2021), Can and Budak (2021), Coyne et al. (2020), O’Reilly et al. (2018), Valkenburg et al. (2022), Wilksch et al. (2019), and Zeeni et al. (2018), examined the relationship between social media use and the development of mental disorders. According to the data obtained, there is a positive relationship between the use of social media leads to the development of depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and other mental illnesses. Between 2011 and 2018, rates of teen depression increased by more than 60%, and emergency room visits for self-harm among girls aged 10 to 14 tripled between 2009 and 2015 (Valkenburg et al., 2022). The main reason for the rise in teenage depression and suicide rates is Valkenburg et al. (2022) consider social media. The correlational data showing that there is an association between social media use and depression is relatively unambiguous at this point. According to Can and Budak (2021), teens who spend more time on social media are more likely to feel depressed or unhappy. Moreover, Bettmann et al. (2021) studied adolescents and found a strong positive significant association between social media use and depression. As social media use increased, depression rates increased (Bettmann et al., 2021).
In turn, Can and Budak (2021) found that the most frequent social media users feel 2.7 times worse psychologically than those who visit the site occasionally. The timing of social media use from one hour a day is already recognized as critical for the development of depression in adolescents (Can and Budak, 2021). In contrast, Coyne et al. (2020) concluded that there is a negative association between social media use and the development of depression but a positive association between social media use and anxiety. As social media use increased, depression decreased, and as social media use increased, disturbance increased (Coyne et al., 2020).
Furthermore, research confirms a positive association between social media use and eating disorders (EDDs). For example, Wilksch et al. (2019) collected data on 996 male and female adolescents. They examined the frequency of eating disorders and the use of social media such as Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, and Tumblr. Regardless of gender, social media use is associated with the development of eating disorders. Zeeni et al. (2018) also confirmed that social media is related to unhealthy eating habits as well as stress in youth. These studies have shown that social media use is associated with unhealthy behaviors and that young people should be aware of this to protect themselves from the harmful effects it can have on their mental well-being.
A study reflecting adolescents’ opinions about the effect of social media on their mental health is of particular importance. O’Reilly et al. (2018) recruited participants aged 11–18 from two cities in the United Kingdom to ask these teenagers how they feel about social media. Teenagers described social media as a threat to their mental health. A study by O’Reilly et al. (2018) identified two aspects. First, social media has been seen as a cause of mood and anxiety disorders in some adolescents. Second, social media was a platform that was characterized by cyberbullying. Third, the use of social media is addictive. Adolescents themselves note the negative impact of social media on their mental health (O’Reilly et al., 2018). Thus, studies by Bettmann et al. (2021), Can and Budak (2021), Coyne et al. (2020), O’Reilly et al. (2018), Valkenburg et al. (2022), Wilksch et al. (2019), and Zeeni et al. (2018) consistently show that social media use contributes to the development of depression, anxiety, stress, eating disorders, and other psychiatric disorders that harm adolescents’ mental health.
Social Media and Addiction
As noted above, one of the findings from O’Reilly et al. (2018) research is that social media use is addictive in adolescents. Adolescent social media addiction is a behavioral disorder in which adolescents become addicted to social media and are unable to reduce or stop their consumption of Internet content despite harmful consequences and serious disadvantages (O’Reilly et al., 2018).
According to Zeeni et al. (2018), many adolescents report developing anxiety and anxiety due to being separated from technology, which adds to the strain on their mental health. Overuse changes a person’s view of social media because it can make them feel stressed. Eventually, they feel the need to follow messages and activities in order to maintain these social connections with others (Han and Myers, 2018). As a result of the development of addiction, adolescents become intolerant, unpredictable, and impulsive and can also, under the influence of strong emotions, commit rash acts up to suicide (O’Reilly et al., 2018). Thus, the authors agree that social media cause adolescents’ addiction, adversely affecting their mental health.
Social Media and Body Image
Contemporary media convey and perpetuate social standards of beauty about the body (Gordon et al., 2021). However, due to their unrealistic nature, these ideals are unattainable for most people. This discrepancy breeds dissatisfaction with appearance and increases eating disorders among adolescents whose psyches are not yet fully formed (Tiggemann and Anderberg, 2020). Tiggemann and Anderberg (2020), in their study, characterize the effect of likes and comments about the reality of an image on the perception of body image in young women. It was found that photos of beautiful girls and many likes influenced dissatisfaction with their face and body. Viewing photographs without comments reduces satisfaction with one’s appearance, and comments about reality testing reduce dissatisfaction with one’s body (Tiggemann and Anderberg, 2020).
Gordon et al. (2021) went even further in studying the influence of social media on adolescent body image. The researchers tested the effectiveness of the SoMe program, which aims to build social media literacy. Despite modest results, Gordon et al. (2021) see appropriate interventions to limit negative body image and dietary attitudes based on social media use. Social media literacy interventions are particularly relevant for adolescent girls who are more concerned about appearance and nutrition than boys (Gordon et al., 2021). Thus, these studies let us to conclude that social media have an adverse effect on adolescents’ mental health, which is associated with the consolidation of unrealistic beauty standards due to the inconsistency with which adolescents suffer.
Positive Impact of Social Media on Adolescents’ Mental Health
In addition to the negative consequences of the impact of social media, there are also positive ones. Many researchers have found that social media can improve mental health. Among them are Bekalu et al. (2019), Hardy and Castonguay (2018), Beard et al. (2019), Dewa et al. (2019), and Gibson and Trnka (2020). Bekalu et al. (2019) and Hardy and Castonguay (2018) examined the positive impact of social media on adolescents’ mental health. The results of both studies indicate that the use of social media contributes to adolescents’ psychological well-being. Hardy and Castonguay (2018) examined the relationship between social media use and emotional well-being based on data collected from young Facebook users. As social media use increased, young people’s emotional well-being improved (Hardy and Castonguay, 2018). Thus, the researchers found that the use of social media improves emotional well-being.
These findings are consistent with Bekalu et al. (2019), who found that routine social media use is positively associated with social well-being, mental health, and self-reported health. Social media offers young people who may be suffering from mental health problems the opportunity to read books, watch movies, or listen to music and understand the experiences of others, relating them to their reality (Bekalu et al., 2019). Researchers note that social media can offer an invaluable opportunity to engage young people with conventional health messages. Delivering health messages to the interactive spaces that young people frequent on social media may be one way to provide expert health information that other demographics may receive through traditional channels (Bekalu et al., 2019). Researchers affirm that this information may come in the form of instructions from medical services or directly from physicians.
Research by Beard et al. (2019), Dewa et al. (2019), and Gibson and Trnka (2020) focus on the online support aspect of social media use. Using social media as a means of communication promotes feelings of support, which positively affects mental health (Beard et al., 2019). Social media is used to stay connected with family and friends and create new connections with people with common interests. Connecting with others remains a positive aspect of social media. Members of online communities have the opportunity to develop an intellectual, emotional, and material support system that can extend to real-life situations and problems (Beard et al., 2019). Moreover, shy teenagers who have difficulty with eye contact and feel socially awkward can discover a new format of communication through the use of social media. It will help them develop personal qualities and better control other people’s perceptions. (Beard et al., 2019). Feeling the social support that social media can offer positively impacts mental health. Users can gain a greater sense of meaning in life, increase happiness, improve mental health, and feel loved, cared for, listened to, supported, and encouraged (Beard et al., 2019).
Gibson and Trnka (2020) found that adolescents are less likely to seek professional help than any other age group despite having many psychological problems and stress. In turn, the Internet provides anonymity, which is crucial for teenagers (Gibson and Trnka, 2020). The researchers looked at how online resources can reduce the stigma young people face when trying to get help due to the anonymity and lack of judgment online. This led to the conclusion that, due to anonymity, adolescents are not afraid to seek support online, which helps recognize distress and work with existing psychological problems.
This conclusion is consistent with Dewa et al. (2019), who found that young people who use social media to communicate and express themselves see it positively associated with psychological health. Young people are increasingly turning to social media as a means of emotional support to prevent and manage mental health problems. Study participants found it reassuring to be able to speak openly and without judgment about something important to them, especially their mental health (Dewa et al., 2019). Sharing problems with friends, and peers can be met with a positive response. Nearly 7 in 10 teens report receiving social media support during difficult times (Dewa et al., 2019).
Hogan and Strasburger (2018) note the particular benefit of using social media to inform adolescents about current health issues, including psychological ones. Adolescents have the opportunity to interact with health care providers, as well as search for medical information. According to Hogan and Strasburger (2018), adolescents with mental health problems are among the most active social media users and prefer to receive sensitive health information from social media sites. Thus, despite some adverse effects of social media, many authors, including Bekalu et al. (2019), Hardy and Castonguay (2018), Beard et al. (2019), Dewa et al. (2019), Gibson and Trnka (2020), and Hogan and Strasburger (2018) note the benefits of social media for adolescents mental health.
Conclusions
Thus, this literature review aimed to review the investigators’ assessment of the effect of social media on adolescents’ mental health. In reviewing the evidence presented, it is essential to recognize that the studies have some limitations. Studies such as Beard et al. (2019), Bekalu et al. (2019), Coyne et al. (2020), and Dewa et al. (2019) reflect some bias in participants’ self-reports. In these studies, participants either underreported or overreported, which could skew the results and make the association between adolescent social media use and mental health problems less accurate and difficult to measure. Problems with self-report bias can arise when investigators do not use clinical specimens and do not have physicians available to support participants’ claims of diagnoses of depression and anxiety. In particular, this happened in a study by Coyne et al. (2020). Due to the lack of clinical samples, participants may have a self-reporting bias when discussing their symptoms of mental health problems and time spent on social media. In turn, the sample size of Dewa et al. (2019) was small and consisted of 16 participants, most of whom were women. Another way that self-report bias can be is when there is no clear relationship between reported and observed behavior. It was the case in studies by Beard et al. (2019) and Bekalu et al. (2019), as it was impossible to confirm the amount of smartphone use reported by participants, which could lead to potential bias in self-reporting.
In turn, researchers such as Anderson and Jiang (2018) found no clear association between social media and adolescent mental health problems. They found that since the last survey in 2014-2015, there has been increased use of smartphones and social media among this population group, but they did not find a clear consensus on how this group views social media in general. Other study limitations included a lack of adolescent participation due to parental hesitation (Velozoa and Stauder, 2018; Wilksch et al., 2019). Velozoa and Stauder (2018) interviewed teen parents, not teens themselves. It can lead to false conclusions based on reports from parents. Wilksch et al. (2019) conducted a survey of adolescents, but this required parental permission. This survey method can also lead to misleading conclusions due to parental hesitancy about adolescent participation.
Thus, despite some research limitations, the researchers argue that there is a link between the use of social media and adolescents’ mental health. The authors consider both negative and positive effects. Regarding adverse effects, Anderson and Jiang (2018), O’Reilly et al. (2018), and Zeeni et al. (2018) link a decline in communication skills to social media use, and Bettmann et al. (2021), Can and Budak (2021), Coyne et al. (2020), Han and Myers, (2018), O’Reilly et al. (2018), Valkenburg et al. (2022), Wilksch et al. (2019), and Zeeni et al. (2018) believe that social media are a factor in the development of mental disorders and addiction in adolescents. Gordon et al. (2021) and Tiggemann and Anderberg (2020) concluded that social media negatively affects adolescents’ mental health through body image distortion. Conversely, Bekalu et al. (2019), Hardy and Castonguay (2018), Beard et al. (2019), Dewa et al. (2019), Gibson and Trnka (2020), and Hogan and Strasburger (2018) found that social media improves mental health in adolescents. A review of the presented studies shows that the information received is contradictory. Therefore, it is impossible to unequivocally state only negatively or only positively about the impact of social media on adolescents’ mental health due to insufficient information and often due to diametrically different data obtained. Thus, the existing research base indicates that more research is needed on the impact of social media on adolescents’ mental health.
Recommendations
Based on a literature review, it becomes clear that more research is needed on the effect of social media on adolescents’ mental health in order to get a clear and unambiguous answer. It is crucial since social media is integral to teens’ lives. It is also vital to understand the implications of social media in this age group, as the views of this age group are in the formative stage and are highly dependent on the surrounding context, which is also broadcast through social media. Researchers are encouraged to pay more attention to how teenagers use social media. It is also recommended that studies have long-term evaluations of the impact of social media on adolescents’ mental health. Based on the study limitations reviewed, investigators are encouraged to remove self-report bias in order to present accurate results.
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