The process of globalization is often viewed as an exclusively modern phenomenon that has arisen due to the development of multinational corporations and technological innovation. However, historians have been considering the periodization of world integration for a long time and also trying to determine the time of its beginning. Nevertheless, this task is a major challenge for researchers around the world since globalization is the result of the combination of multiple factors, and it is extremely difficult to take all of them into account. Thus, the study of the process of world integration should be based on specific criteria that would determine the framework for the functioning of the phenomenon, depending on the prerequisites and time of occurrence.
Periodizing the History of Globalization
The periodization of the history of globalization seems to be a significant challenge for modern historians. There are many opinions as to what processes caused globalization and what role they play in world integration. Haselby (2017) notes that globalization transformations were a consequence of “the fall of the Berlin Wall, the crumbling protective ramparts of national capitalism, the boom in container shipping, and the rise of the cosmopolis.”
Thus, in the 80-the 90s of the 20th century, significant economic and political changes began to take place, which became the basis of modern world integration (Haselby, 2017). Some historians also believe that “the almost simultaneous ending of the Cold War and the rise of the Internet marked the beginning of a new era of history” (Northrup, 2005, p. 253). However, globalization in a broader sense is a long process that has been occurring for many centuries.
Historians highlight modern globalization and earlier processes of world integration, which are characterized by global convergence. Global integrations can be dated to at least 1571, when trans-Pacific connections were established to enable the exchange of goods between the countries of the Pacifics and the Atlantics (as cited in McKeown, 2007). The earliest origins of globalization can also be traced back to the period after 1492, when germs and crops were exchanged between the Old and New Worlds (as cited in McKeown, 2007). These processes could not necessarily involve the direct interaction of people but relate to the awareness of world integration. Moreover, such exchanges became the reasons for early economic and political transformations, which can also characterize them as the origins of globalization.
Some historians consider world integration as a broader process that, accordingly, is related to a wider time frame. Northrup (2005) proposes to investigate the phenomenon of globalization from the perspective of the Great Convergence, which comprises more factors. This paradigm implies a consideration of the process of world integration from earlier than 1000 CE. Northrup (2005) notes that ancient civilizations united people “under yokes of military power and common laws, common languages and religious systems, and networks of trade” (p. 254). By the 13-14 centuries, the political and economic influence of globalization was also increasing due to the development of trades and connections.
After 1820, the periodization of globalization takes on more detailed features. However, McKeown (2017) emphasizes that historians for this period mainly consider the processes that occurred in Europe and extrapolate them to the rest of the world. Since the 1970s, global connections have been characterized by the growing role of East Asia and other significant changes. However, although this mark is considered the beginning of contemporary globalization, there is no evidence of the acceleration of the processes of world integration in comparison with previous periods (McKeown, 2017). Moreover, in terms of macroeconomic indicators, “current levels of integration were fully matched by those of a century ago” (Lang, 2006, p. 903).
Thus, the periodization of the history of globalization largely depends on which transformations are considered crucial. Some features of world integration may be more significant in the modern world, but some global trends may become less relevant in comparison with previous centuries.
Moreover, the periodization of history is most often Eurocentric, which limits the focus on the participation of other continents in globalization. Haselby (2017) also claims that “global history preferred a scale that reflected its cosmopolitan self-yearnings.” This assumption identifies that historians often do not consider the integration processes taking place on a more local scale. However, in the more distant past, contacts with closest neighbors could be the same processes of globalization as transnational supply chains are now. Thus, the problem of determining the periodization of the history of world integration is based on the difficulty in determining the features of this phenomenon.
Different historians identify the start of globalization in various periods, as they consider specific aspects as key to describe the process. Therefore, in order to understand how old global integration is, it is necessary to apply different perspectives and approaches. However, considering the process of globalization in a planetary context is an almost impossible task since it requires combining excessively numerous factors.
Factors to be Considered in Defining Globalization
Globalization can be considered as an old or a new phenomenon, depending on which aspects are taken into account. Lang (2006) argues that considering exclusively geographic factors of interaction between nation-states is not enough to understand the integration process. The most significant transformations to consider, especially from the perspective of modern globalization, are economic connections and financial transformations. World trade integration, which forms a modern system of product export and distribution, has now reached record rates. However, this assumption is true only for some countries, while the overall indicators remain stable (Lang, 2006).
Moreover, 80% of the modern world economy is national, and the distribution of global trade flows is highly uneven (Lang, 2006, p. 906). Thus, the consideration of the economic factors of globalization is more related to the rise of the study of international finance and does not always reflect the situation truthfully.
A special place in the study of globalization is occupied by the consideration of cultural factors, which are often ignored by researchers. Northrup (2005) notes that world history, in particular with regard to world integration, does not take into account the histories of various groups and minorities. However, the exchange of experiences between cultures is also the foundation of the globalization process. Moreover, there are many local and regional centers that have had a critical impact on the process of global integration at certain stages (Northrup, 2005). Additionally, one cannot also ignore the effect of the spread of religious beliefs among different countries and continents.
Migrations at different levels are also a key factor to consider when studying globalization. However, large migrations, such as the Transatlantic, are more often taken into account, but there were many regional ones (McKeown, 2017). Thus, historians have insufficient information about the pattern and volumes of migration, for example, in East Asia. Upon closer examination, it appears that statistical data indicate the same level of migration processes in this area as in the European part (McKeown, 2017). However, as in the case of the economic aspects, the reduced focus is being given to regional specificities.
The technological factors that influence the development of globalization should also not be overlooked. Modern technology allows people not only to travel faster but also to exchange information instantly. These conditions, on the one hand, accelerate the process of global integration, but on the other hand, they have a negative effect on local interaction. Haselby (2017) underlines that interdependence should develop not only with distant neighbors but also with the closest ones. In this regard, one should also not lose sight of the environmental factors, which in modern conditions come to the fore. Only a global network of relationships, as well as political strategies, can help in solving the problem of climate change. In this respect, globalization is acquiring more modern features from a historical point of view.
Conclusion
Globalization and world integration is a multidimensional process in which multiple aspects are involved. Moreover, different time periods are characterized by various key factors, which are also relevant for the territories. Despite the increased attention to this phenomenon in recent years, the process of world integration probably has been occurring from ancient times. Although it was more local in nature, this fact depends only on the level of technological, economic, and cultural development of societies. It is the complexity of the factors that make up the process of world integration that is the main difficulty for the historical periodization of the phenomenon.
Researchers need to consider both contemporary and past factors that are involved in globalization. Moreover, the regional features of the interacting territories cannot be ignored either, since convergence still occurs between individual entities that exchange experience and resources.
References
Haselby, S. (2017). What is global history now? Aeon. Web.
Lang, M. (2006). Globalization and its history. The Journal of Modern History, 78(4), 899-931. Web.
McKeown, A. (2007). Periodizing globalization. History Workshop Journal, 63, 218-230. Web.
Northrup, D. (2005). Globalization and the Great Convergence: Rethinking world history in the long term. Journal of World History, 16(3), 249-267. Web.