The events in an individual’s life during childhood vastly influence the personality type of that person during adulthood. In most cases, the roles played by parents contribute significantly to the personality of a child even as he or she grows to maturity (481). During the infancy stage, there is a higher tendency of turning to parents to seek solace, comfort or reassurance. In order to thoroughly understand the origin of personality, recent studies have included “child effects”. These are developmental effects that contribute to the shaping up of a child’s temperament. There are certain childhood characteristics which are clear indicators of the personality type of a child upon growing up. Each child has a unique temperament. On the same note, temperament also dictates how individuals influence their own emotional and social development right from infancy to adulthood. During infancy, temperament can be analyzed, understood and interpreted more easily than during old age (482).
The temperament that is regulation-oriented is perceived to have its onset during childhood and its development proceeds rapidly during the entire infancy stage as the child develops physically and emotionally. Although there might be some similarities in temperamental development in childhood, there are a myriad of remarkable differences which conspicuously stand out in every individual child. The differences emerge in the self regulated features of temperamental development. For instance in the first twelve months after birth, inhibitory control is common among toddlers (483). It is a temperamental feature that is not visible within the first year after birth. For example, infants do not hesitate to act upon receiving instructions from some source say from an elderly person.
In order to interpret childhood temperament, there are quite a number of dimensions that have been used (257). Nevertheless, the conceptual overlap of these dimensions has been an issue of concern especially if the dimensions themselves fail to give consistent results. The temperamental dimensions in childhood include but not limited to anger or irritability, the level of childhood activity, persistency in attention seeking, positive affect and fear.
In addition, there is a set of factors that have been unanimously agreed upon concerning temperament in children. When a Children Behavior Questionnaire is used, parents can provide useful report on the temperament of children who are mostly between the ages of 3 and 8. Moreover, the use of this type of questionnaire has revealed several similarities among children who belong in different age groups. In any case, all age groups among children exhibit similarities in surgency and negative affectivity. Besides, the longitudinal Australian Temperament Project (ATP) gives a clear picture. This analysis expounds on inflexibility, inability to adapt and also reacting negatively. There are similarities to Negative Affectivity.
Substantial stability in an infant’s temperament is an assumption that has been made over period of time. This may not always be the case. Children’s temperament keeps changing with time and what can be referred to as stability is only modest (258). There are a number of research studies that have been conducted to ascertain whether there is an association between the temperament of a child and that of the parent or whether parenting can influence temperament or whether temperament influences parenting. Theoretically, it has not been easy to prove these associations and linkages. There is need for sufficient empirical proofs based on the right practical methodologies to ascertain whether the aforementioned elements influence each other in way. Nonetheless, there seems to be consensus on the active role played by genes in the development of temperament in children (258).
In predicting later temperament when a child is still in infancy stage, a scale called Braselton Neonatal is used. When this tool is used, it is found out that temperament does not seem to remain stable as a child grows up. At the same time, different studies carried out to establish the level of consistency in temperament have produced results that are not consistent at all. Regardless of the study used, none of them showed stability in temperament beyond the age of six months. The Louisville Twin study has been the most promising survey carried out on children’s temperamental development. There were moderate linkages between neonatal behavior and temperament at the age of six months. The relationship that was found between the two parameters was more valid. The intrauterine effects as well as maturational elements were cited as some of the factors that may have significantly contributed towards lack of stability in temperament (30). Nonetheless, the two factors may as well be subsidiary reasons behind the instability. According to research studies on the two variables, the reliability ratio is about one fifth or just 22 percent.
Additionally, there are studies that have been carried out to establish temperament development in children between the ages of four and eleven months. In this age group, standard questionnaires have been used. Out of all the studies carried out, none of them showed stability in temperament beyond the age the age of 11 months (34).
Prediction of infancy temperament from the age of two years, a moderate stability in temperament was found among children between the ages of 21 and 48 months.
Temperament has a close relationship to personality in the development of children. The psychometric qualities measured in the intelligence of a child against temperament are very crucial in determining the relationship between intelligence itself and temperament (154). In most temperament-intelligence studies carried out, there are findings that are most dominant. There are four elements of temperament that have a direct relationship with intelligence of a child. For instance, children in the middle school level, the preschool age groups as well as toddlers are characterized with negative mood against the span of time which they can be attentive. On the other hand, those in the adolescent stage, preschool, middle age and childhood age groups are associated with an approach dimension of temperament against their ability to adapt or withdraw to the prevailing conditions (155).
Taking a test in order to determine the Intelligence Quotient in children has been regarded as a right methodology to use in the determination of relationship between temperament and intelligence. Test taking is a very superb mediator. The behavior portrayed by children as they take their tests gives important hints on the nature of their temperaments. Moreover, according to data obtained from parental reports, it indicates that the characteristics of the children’s temperament are an important ingredient in the process of their development (156).
The “goodness of fit’’ concept was developed by Chess and Thomas. According to this concept, the characteristics of any given temperament influence the outcome of any development especially in regard to growth and development in childhood. The environments which children live greatly influence their activities. The concept attempts to explain the environmental demands and how children try to meet them (34). The concept is applicable when children experience different environmental conditions that require them to adapt accordingly. In the case of a child who is still young, there are a lot of environmental factors to bear with. From this background, the temperament of children can be measured by how much each individual child can adapt and get used to the changes. Through this application, the manner in which children respond to the natural world and inevitable circumstances surrounding them is established.
Depending on the characteristics of a child’s temperament, a conflict between the parent and child can arise at some point especially if a task is assigned and the child perceives it to be difficult.
Variables within temperament are also related to how adults manage their decisions and particularly those which impact on children. Moreover, the manner in which adults interact with children will also determine their level of temperament as they grow to maturity (37). Moreover, as children and adults communicate and generally interact, the tone of their interaction means a lot as far the child’s temperament is concerned. For instance, children who have low retention power are more likely to be criticized by their teachers. As for the teacher, the impression he or she may be getting from such a poor repose from the child is that the latter is perhaps rude and unruly. Such an attitude towards the child’s development path may breed really undesirable temperament.
Children and infants differ in a variety of ways in their temperament. These differences can be measured using the nine dimensions of temperament that attempts to describe how they respond across different contexts in life. Most research studies have widely used the nine dimensions of temperament. Nonetheless, there have been concerns on how the different scales overlap alongside poor consistency of the results obtained (143).
Other research studies have also categorized children in terms of their temperament profiles. Children who are hard to handle or manage are more likely to have a negative mood. They can also be possessed with a withdrawal attitude.
The effect of the environment on the temperamental development of the child was mainly elaborated by research carried out by traditional socialization. Such conventional studies on temperament asserted that the temperament of a child was largely influenced by the parent (144). Moreover, the child’s contribution to personal temperament was seen as a subsidiary factor and did not significantly contribute to their temperament. Moreover, there are quite a number of models have been used in the process if understanding developmental process in a child’s development.
Social development forms the basis of a child’s development and functioning. It is through social development that the temperament of a child is not only shaped but also identified. In defining social development, Schaffer explains it s a series of behavioral designs or attitudes which children exhibit in reference to other individuals who are within their environment. Besides, children will also manifest social development feelings according to how the latter change over time (167). It is therefore important to create a link between a child’s temperament and social development.
Psychological disorders during childhood have been associated with unmanageable or difficult temperaments in one way or another. For instance, disorders which attack the mood of the child can remarkably affect the temperament due to elevated levels of reaction to environmental issues (403). Other disorders that may affect temperament include anxiety disorder, early delinquent behavior and disruptive behavior. If a child happen to develop these psychological disorders, he or she is more likely to experience difficult temperament. Moreover, children who engage on early drug and substance abuse stand a higher chance of being hot tempered compared to their peers who are not under the influence of nay drugs.
In addition, there is also another higher possibility difficult temperament among minors who are suffering from bipolar disorder. This is mainly because of behavioral disinhibition and also inability to control or regulate emotions (413). Nonetheless, there is still need for more data to relate the significance of psychopathology disorders and temperament. For instance, the role played by either inhibition or disinhibition against the ability to control the emotions as far as difficult temperament is concerned is important.
There are a myriad of measurements that can be adopted to determine how psychological disorders affect temperament. For example, observations can be made on the behavioral patterns of the child. Besides, measurements dealing with neuropsychological measurements can also provide useful hints on the correlation between the two parameters. In addition, neuro-imaging is another powerful tool that can be employed in drawing a correlation between temperament and psychological disorders as children develop (416-417). Although the aforementioned measurement methods are handy in the study of temperament in children, the influence of the environment on the development of children cannot be ignored. One such local influence is the system of parenting style in use in addition to genetic influence from parent to offspring.
Temperamental development in children may be greatly affected by the existing cultural practices of the community they are living in. one such cultural practice is the parenting style that usually entails introducing a child to different cultural practices and also encouraging them to follow the same practices (152). When this happens, these children get emotionally attached to the practices which sooner or later shape their temperament. Children who develop and grow with shy temperament or emotionally withdrawn from others may prove to be challenging to their parents. When there is a vacuum between mood and difficulty among children, it may also imply a cultural aspect. For instance, there are those children who may appear withdrawn and emotionally lost as a result of the open disregard by the immediate people they dwell with. Such a culture can significantly downplay their moods and eventually make them appear as social misfits (153). Moreover, persistence is yet another characteristic which has a potential impact on the temperamental developmental of the child. This feature has a close link to difficulty in some societies.
Moreover, parents’ response on the nature of their children’s temperament exhibits a lot of similarities in one way or the other. Most parents included in research surveys seem to give unanimous responses that can be said to be generally on an average scale. On the same note, there are those categories of children who may experience difficulty as they try to adjust themselves to rules and regulations imposed by adults or better still attempting to adjust to changes within their immediate environment. This category of children tends to change with time as they become more difficult to handle due to changed temperament with time. They become more stubborn to resist any form of change that may prove to be uncomfortable to them.
The manner in which temperament influences psychopathology during the developmental stages in children has been a subject of research for many years. An issue of concern is the problem associated with both behavior and emotion among children. Researchers have conclusively identified possible problems in all age groups ranging from childhood to adulthood. Hence, there seems to be an overlap between temperament and psychopathology according to the ideas put forward by some theorists (547). A normative range of responses derived from emotions and behavior are all enshrined within temperament. On the other hand, psychopathology dies not go beyond certain excessive level or patterns of responses that are not functional. Therefore, it is possible for children to be predisposed by temperament due to the developments encountered as a result of psychopathological conditions. In any case, this hypothesis has received a lot of support from a variety of longitudinal research methods.
Children who experience externalizing problems both at the higher and lower levels have been investigated in a separate research study. Their personalities as well as temperament were born into mind. From the study, it has been found that JTCI model can be a very important tool of correlating the personality of adults to corresponding temperament during infancy or childhood. Furthermore, there is vivid internal consistency of the research study which gives details on how parents can influence the temperament of their children. Two reports namely parent and self report are used o unveil the linkage between the two parameters (554).
Measuring and tracing the early development of children’s temperament has been one of the most fascinating aspects of childhood research in the past two decades or so (113). It is imperative to note that temperament in this case refers to differences that arise from one individual to another as far as motor reactivity and emotions are concerned besides the ability to regulate an individual’s emotions. Most of the modern studies on infancy have made it possible to link or create a prediction between later personality and current temperament.
Temperament development in children has been made possible through a variety of studies like observer ratings, observations as well as other reports. Although Infant Temperament Questionnaire has been used for considerably long period of time, this measure has so far been discarded and an updated version put to use (114). According to the research study carried out by Vaughn et al., self reported aggression was found to be higher among mothers who had children proved to be more difficult in their temperament. The ITQ does not seem to assess the temperament of the child but rather that of the mother. Similarly, mothers have been perceived to largely influence the genetic makeup of their children which proportionately influences their level of temperament. The personality associated with mother has been found to correlate with that of their children’s temperament. Hence, children will tend to behave in amore similar way to their biological mothers, a characteristic attributed to genetic transmission from mother to child. Moreover, parent reports are perceived to be almost flawless in addressing temperamental development in children compared to the use of laboratory or direct observations (116). The latter two may give unreliable results due to potentiality of bias.
Works Cited
Amy E. West Lindsay S. Schenkel Mani N. Pavuluri. “Early Childhood Temperament in Pediatric Bipolar: Disorder and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder”, Journal of Clinical Psychology, 64(2008): 402-421.
Benson, B. Janette and Haith, M. Marshall. “Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Early Childhood”, San Diego: Elsevier Inc., 2009.
Bornstein, H. Marc. “Handbook of Parenting: Children and parenting, Volume 1”, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. 2002.
Copeland, et al. “Multi-Informant Assessment of Temperament in Children With Externalizing Behavior Problems”, Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33(2004): 547–556.
Gallimore, Ronald. “Developmental perspectives on children with high-incidence disabilities”, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc., 1999.
Guerin, Wright Diana. “Temperament: infancy through adolescence: the Fullerton longitudinal study”, New York: Kluwer academic/ Plenum Publishers, 2003.
Plomin, Robert and Dunn, Judy. “The Study of temperament: changes, continuities, and challenges”, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc., 1986.
Rothbart K. Mary and Hwang Julie. “Measuring Infant Temperament” Infant Behavior and Development, 25(2002): 113-116.
Sanson, Ann, Hemphill, A. Sheryl and Smart, Diana. “Connections between Temperament and Social Development: A Review”, Social Development, 13(2004): 142-170.
Super M. Charles et al. “Culture, Temperament, and the “Difficult Child”: A Study in Seven Western Cultures”, European Journal of Developmental Science, 21(2008): 136–157.