Aviation, Wildlife Trafficking and Collecting Data

Introduction: Wildlife conservation is one of the major concerns of the modern age regarding the critical deterioration of the environment and climate change. For this reason, much attention is given to protecting animals in their natural habitat. Thus, illicit wildlife trafficking remains a serious problem impacting the outcomes of conservation activities and requiring immediate action. For this reason, the offered study focuses on investigating the problem of wildlife trafficking within the civil aviation sector and how to resolve it. Most regulatory agencies working within the sphere, such as ICAO, IATA, ACI, and other international bodies, such as the UN, also recognize the issue’s critical importance. They work together to introduce new policies and make declarations to create a new framework for resisting wildlife trafficking and attaining desired outcomes.

Research Questions and Objectives: The pivotal aim of the given study is to investigate the major documents linked to the problem, such as policies, declarations, and conventions, and conclude about their impact on the further development of aviation. Regarding the purpose, the following research questions are introduced:

• What are the major policies governing aviation regarding wildlife trafficking?
• What are the priorities among international aviation bodies regarding wildlife trafficking?

By answering these questions, it is possible to acquire a better understanding of the current approach to struggling against wildlife trafficking. Regarding the research aims, the following objectives were introduced:

• identify whether there are policies regulating wildlife trafficking in aviation
• explore how the major priorities outlined in the existing documents are linked to wildlife trafficking and affect it
• to reveal strategies introduced by international agencies and governments to address illicit wildlife trafficking
• to reveal the major themes covered by policy documents and existing agreements
• to conclude about the relevance of current goals and their clarity.

The objectives help to guide the research, collect necessary information, and answer the research question.

Literature Review: The theoretical framework for the research is formed by reviewing the relevant and credible sources devoted to the problem. The data collected in the course of the literature review shows that global cooperation is viewed as the most powerful solution to the problem. For this reason, international agreements, such as CITES, the Buckingham Palace Declaration, and UN Resolutions, are introduced to guide further actions and help airlines to develop a stronger response. The literature review also helps to familiarize with the current information and selected documents that should be analyzed to answer the research questions.

Methodology: The study uses qualitative methods of data collection and analysis supported by inductive reasoning. The major assumptions are formulated after the investigation as the acquired information serves as the basis for cogitations. Inductive coding and thematic analysis are used as the primary tools for working with information and its processing. The dataset is comprised of the documents, policies, and conventions offered by the international agencies, such as ICAO, UN, ACI, UfW, and IATA:

• United for Wildlife Transport Taskforce Buckingham Palace Declaration
• ACI Resolution #2. Sustainable Development of the Aviation Ecosystem
• CITES Strategic Vision: 2021 2030
• UN Resolution 71/326. Tackling illicit trafficking in wildlife
• ICAO Facilitation Panel. Collaborative Approach in the Fight Against Wildlife Trafficking
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
• H.R.2494 – Eliminate, Neutralize, and Disrupt Wildlife Trafficking Act of 2016
• IATA Resolution on the Illegal Trade in Wildlife

The offered codes are:

1. Policy
2. Information sharing
3. System
4. Illegal wildlife trade
5. Zero tolerance policy
6. Awareness
7. Training
8. Collaboration and cooperation
9. Criminalization
10. Integrated framework
11. Convention

Regarding the codes, the following themes were established:

1. International cooperation
2. Systemic approach
3. Law enforcement and punishment
4. Working with individuals

Results: The themes mentioned above helped to analyze the dataset and acquire the necessary outcomes. Thus, investigation shows that every theme is mentioned in the selected documents numerous times (“international cooperation” – 21; “systemic approach” – 30; “law enforcement and punishment” – 33; “working with individuals” – 18). It means that the selected themes are relevant to the problem. Moreover, the thematic analysis proves that international cooperation is viewed as the only possible way to address the problem and acquire desired outcomes. Regarding the high level of criminalization, it is also critical to introduce specific punishments for traffickers and ensure the international and national law is prepared for struggling against the problem.

Conclusion: Altogether, the study emphasizes the topicality of the problem of wildlife trafficking in the civil aviation sector. The information acquired from various sources shows that the number of animals transported illegally remains high, increasing the risks of the critical deterioration of the environment. For this reason, numerous international agencies emphasize the necessity of creating a collaborative approach and a new framework supported by enhanced data sharing, training and reporting. The possible research bias is addressed by using credible sources, a transparent data analysis process that can be repeated, and the validity of acquired outcomes. The investigation can also be used as the basis for future research on the same topic, focusing on working with the personnel and improving existing security systems.

• IATA – International Air Transport Association
• ICAO – International Civil Aviation Organization
• ACI – Airports Council International
• UN – United Nations
• CITES – Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
• ROUTES – Reducing Opportunities for Unlawful Transport of Endangered Species
• UfW – United for Wildlife
• IPCC – the Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change
• UNDOC – United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

Aviation and Wildlife Conservation: A CLOSER LOOK INTO WILDLIFE TRAFFICKING AND Collecting Data

Introduction

Aviation is one of the most fast-evolving industries the modern world. Its fast development is explained by the high strategic importance and the constantly growing demand for air travel. The globalised world introduces the need to reach various destination areas in short periods. It leads to constructing new airports, diversifying existing routes, and constantly growing traffic. Following the International Civil Aviation Organization’s (ICAO) (2021) report, the number of passengers carried on scheduled services comprised about 4,5 billion. It is a 4.9% growth compared to the previous year (ICAO, 2021b). The number of passenger-kilometers also grew, evidenced by the increased demand (see Figure 1):

However, aviation’s role is not limited only to carrying passengers or cargoes. On the contrary, the evolution of technologies provides it with new opportunities and spheres where it can be applied. As a result, nowadays, aircraft are used to address specific attention and control issues. Aviation provides specialists with unique advantages, such as access to complicated areas, more effective monitoring, fast travel, and research (Boratto. And Gibbs, 2021). For this reason, it is broadly used to address the existing challenges and resolve them. For instance, wildlife conservation and monitoring illegal trafficking efforts are critical for the modern world and are supported by aviation (Sollund, 2014). It can help to avoid new wave of extinction and attain positive shifts.

Several factors explain the decision to address the problem of illicit transportation of animals. First of all, the last decade has been characterised by the increased importance of environmental concerns. Climate change, human activity, and the high pollution level negatively impacted wildlife. Statistics show that about 5 animals have become extinct in the last 50 years, while many others are at the edge of complete disappearance (Boratto. and Gibbs, 2021; Swaisgood, 2020). Moreover, poaching also poses a severe threat to specific animals and should be addressed (Ihwagi. et al., 2019). Under these conditions, introducing new policies to regulate this aspect becomes the most effective method to address problems and control the state of the population.

In such a way, aviation is nowadays widely used in addressing environmental concerns and the problem of illegal trafficking. For this reason, the research focuses on performing several tasks. First, it is to explore the problem of wildlife trafficking. Second existing regulations, and agreements on the topic should be reviewed. Finally, it is vital to investigate how aviation is used to prevent the illegal trade of animals, to improve wildlife conservation efforts, and create awareness. The thesis is presented as follows. Firstly a literature review, it is followed by the research questions, and the methodology sections.

Literature review

The gradual deterioration of the environment, climate change, and disappearance of numerous animals’ natural habitats are significant modern age concerns. For instance, the Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change (IPCC) (2014) report states economic and population growths are the most critical drivers of negative change, increasing CO2 emissions, and promoting the radical alterations in the world and the extinction of multiple species. The primary causes of wildlife decline include exploitation, climate change, loss of habitat, and its change (see Figure 2).

Furthermore, most scientists offer a discouraging forecast, stating that even more animals will become extinct by the end of the decade, while others face a high risk of complete disappearance (Lee, 2018). The following figure represents the scope of threats and the current state of the problem:

The figure shows that wildlife faces numerous threats, while exploitation, habitat degradation, habitat loss, and climate change are the most significant. These factors promoted a critical extinction of species, as data shows that from 1970 to 2012, about 39% of terrestrial, 76% of fresh water, and 39% of marine species disappeared (McCarthy, 2014). Under these conditions, wildlife conservation acquires the top priority. It is the activity aimed at protecting plant and animal species in their habitats and preserving the balance of existing ecosystems (LEDee et al., 2021; Hinton et al., 2022). Today, numerous tools and technologies are used to succeed in the given sphere and ensure endangered species are protected and can live in areas typical for this animal.

Unfortunately, the positive effects of using aviation in protecting wildlife are reduced because of its use for illegal purposes. For instance, poachers have specific air routes to deliver the parts of animals to various locations and sell them (Miao et al., 2021). It results in killing endangered species and reducing their population (Spevack, 2020). Moreover, there is a big illegal business focusing on capturing and trading animals that are protected by the laws (Spevack, 2021). This activity results in thousands of species being replaced from their natural habitat to other locations, deprived of the necessary conditions for survival (Utermohlen, 2019). Aviation plays a vital role in this process as it provides criminals with an opportunity to deliver such products to the final destination and generate income (Utermohlen and Baine, 2017). Under these conditions, it is critical to address the outlined issues and attain positive change.

Scope of the Problem

For this reason, wildlife trafficking is a critical problem linked to preserving the natural balance and protecting animals. The problem is that illegal gathering, transportation, and distribution of animals cause severe damage to nature and the environment (Boratto. and Gibbs, 2021). Millions of animals and plants are removed from the wild annually (IATA, 2022a). The process has several critical effects on the environment. First, illegal poaching, or trade, reduces the biodiversity of specific areas and destroys the balance within a particular biome, which might result in its deterioration and disappearance (Boratto. and Gibbs, 2021; Moore et al., 2017). Second, the transported animals suffer from poor transportation conditions, lack of specific goods, and improper care (Boratto. and Gibbs, 2021). As a result, they risk dying within several years after being sold (Goyes and Sollund, 2018). It constitutes a critical problem for wildlife preservation attempts.

The scope of the problem is evidenced by the fact that regardless of the latest effort to reduce the number of animals transported illegally, their number continuously grows. The official statistics state that about 23$ billion is generated annually due to the illicit transportation of animals from their natural locations (UNDOC, 2020). Illegal wildlife markets are highly specialised and depend on destination points (Antonopoulos, 2021; UNDOC, 2020). At the same time, there is a list of the groups that are at a higher risk of being captured and transported:

The figure shows that fine wood (rosewood) and protected animals, such as elephants, rhinos, tortoises, and others, are captured and transported (UNDOC, 2020). In many cases, their parts valued at markets might also be an object of trade, which also results in the death of an animal and increases the topicality of wildlife trafficking (UNDOC, 2020). Under these conditions, it is critical to address the problem and promote positive change within the sphere.

The topicality of the question resulted in global agencies’ numerous attempts to ensure there is a collaborative effort to resist the threat. Agencies such as ICAO, IATA, and others started working together to guarantee that the new policies were introduced and implemented (IATA, 2022a). It can contribute to the increased effectiveness of struggle and promote better results within the given sphere (IATA, 2016a). At the same time, there is a serious problem as wildlife trafficking is a global issue, meaning that only international cooperation can help to guarantee that species might benefit from the wildlife conservation efforts to survive.

Criminalization

The problem is also linked to the fact that criminal gangs use the global aviation network to transport illicit wildlife goods throughout the globe. In numerous cases, such activities are performed using aviation (IATA, 2016c). For this reason, regulatory agencies such as International Air Transport Association (IATA) (2016b) introduce specific measures to address the problem. This implies entering international agreements and collaboration to mitigate the adverse effects of the activity. For instance, IATA introduced a particular statement focused on struggling against illicit wildlife trade and trafficking (Burbridge, 2018). It created the basis for the increased effectiveness of wildlife conservation efforts and attempts to reduce illegal traffic (Jaclin, 2016). Furthermore, the resolution encouraged airlines to educate employees, customers, and passengers about the nature, scale, and consequences of illicit wildlife trade, to cooperate with airports and freight forwarders to exert pressure on enforcement agencies, and consider adopting policies to discourage trafficking, such as ensuring incidents are reported and information shared (Utermohlen and Baine, 2018). It became an essential step toward better understanding the scope of the threat and addressing it.

The document mentioned above also promoted the unification of various efforts in this field. For instance, the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) views it as a guideline for starting combating illegal wild trafficking (Spevack, 2021). It provides airlines and leading carriers with tools to identify and respond more effectively to red flags that may indicate suspicious cargo and better understand and mitigate against wildlife trends and patterns (ROUTES, 2019). In this way, it would be impossible for wildlife traffickers to exploit and misuse the world’s leading airlines (ROUTES, 2019). It will help to attain significant improvement in the sphere and avoid further deterioration of the situation. Thus, according to WCS (2022), illicit trafficking affects both animals and human beings, making it a more complex problem. Usually, such byproducts are transported: ivory, rhinoceros horn, enormous cat skins, and live lizards, birds, and turtles. (Reals, 2015). The figure below shows that much effort is put into concealing such objects and transporting them.

As a result, the environmental effects of these activities are negative. Statistics show that almost one-third of the world’s elephants were illegally killed in the last decade (Reals, 2021). For smaller species that supply the illicit live and exotic pet or food trade, it is assumed that about ten more have died in transit per live animal that makes it to market (WCS, 2022). Furthermore, there is a high risk of disease transmission because of the poor management as such cargoes are not controlled and checked for infection (Hesse Rea and Booth, 2010; Hitchens and Blakeslee, 2020).

Other global companies are trying to address the problem. For instance, Emirates has painted five of its Airbus A380s with the United for Wildlife logo and images of endangered animals to bring attention to the issue, which is followed by some other airlines (Stephenson, Lohmann and Spasojevic, 2018). The company also engaged in international collaboration with other groups to educate them about possible threats and reduce wildlife trafficking risks (Anom, 2021). It can be viewed as a result of the UWTT’s efforts to promote align better coordination between various airlines and increase awareness related to the problem (Anom, 2021). It also justifies the necessity of the collaborative effort to promote positive change.

At the same time, numerous barriers should be considered. First, traffickers might be aware of the security mechanisms and often attempt to circumvent them (IATA, 20). There are numerous examples of how criminals used existing breaches in security systems to transport byproducts and generate income (Huggins, 2018; Lavorgna et al., 2020). China, India, and other regions often suffer from such activities (Anom, 2021; Reals, 2016; Wong, 2021). Under these conditions, it becomes critical to address the problem. Africa, Asia, the Middle East, Europe, Americas should be viewed as the major hubs for illegal trafficking (Connelly and Peyronnin, 2021; Nguyen and Roberts, 2020). Unfortunately, for an extended period, wildlife trafficking had been considered only an environmental problem (IATA, 2016b). However, due to the IATA and other agencies’ efforts, it is now viewed as organised crime, and new methods to help aviation are offered.

Collaboration

The realisation of the problem is one of the major factors leading to its resolution. Thus, IATA highlighted the weaknesses in the global air transport security network that are being exploited by traffickers (IATA, 2016c). There are groups and specific routes used by them to move illegal cargoes (IATA, 2016c). For this reason, it is critical to train passengers and workers to recognise and report suspicious behavior and address the problem (IATA, 2016d). Thus, civil aviation remains fundamental for struggling against wildlife trafficking and are a critical component of the strategy (IATA, 2016d). For this reason, it should be given much attention and support.

The International Air Transport Association (IATA) and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) are also involved in the process. They introduced a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) to struggle against illegal trade (IATA, 2016e). They also formulated a framework for addressing the problem based on the IATA Live Animals Regulations, the IATA Perishable Cargo Regulations, and the CITES Guidelines for the Non-Air Transport of Live Wild Animals and Plants (CITES, 1983). CITES will also guarantee that 181 states will focus on addressing illicit trafficking (Sollund, 2022). Thus, these conventions are critical for aligning the collaborative effort and introducing the guidelines to act together and avoid problems in the future (IATA, 2019). At the same time, there are some shortcomings, such as the lack of information about trafficking and critical issues (Arroyo-Quiroz and Wyatt, 2019; ROUTES, 2019). For this reason, there is a need for additional research in the sphere. It is necessary to train personnel as a source of information about dangerous cargoes and the method to address such issues (IATA, 2019). CITES and IATA play a crucial role in supporting the incentive and promoting further success in the field.

Resolutions on Illegal Trade

The central idea of the cooperation is to resist organised crime and offer a robust response to it. IATA (2016e) proclaims that agencies and airlines are responsible for addressing poaching and illicit trade as significant challenges to wildlife conservation efforts. At the 72nd Annual General Meeting, IATA (2016d) approved the resolution on the illegal trade. It became a starting point for developing the efforts demonstrating good results today. The resolution included the following points:

1. encouraged airlines to increase awareness of the nature
2. involved governments in the struggle
3. invited airlines, airports, and other stakeholders to unite in their struggle
4. encouraged airlines to adopt appropriate policies (IATA, 2016d)

As a result, agencies became more potent in struggling against illegal trafficking. The wildlife trade endangers numerous species, and the efforts mentioned above are critical for improving the current state of the issue (IATA, 2016e). Governments were also viewed as essential actors as they might help to achieve the following goals:

• promote awareness among main stakeholders
• work with airports to solve the issue
• introduce necessary changes to rules, procedures, and regulations (IATA, 2016e)

IATA also supported the project initiated by the British royal family. The Declaration signed in 2016 stated that many airlines and organisations should cooperate to raise awareness about the current state of the problem and the ways to address it (IATA, 2016e). It will help to stop criminal gangs and create a new environment beneficial for better outcomes and results. The agreement proves the growing role of aviation in resisting illicit wildlife trafficking and improving the situation.

The resolution contributes to the increased activity of the aviation sector in this region. A memorandum of understanding was signed with the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species during last year’s 71st IATA Annual General Meeting (CITES). At international airports in Nairobi and Bangkok, two awareness-raising seminars for airline and airport employees were organised (IATA, 2016c). In addition, IATA joined the Reducing Opportunities for Unlawful Transport of Endangered Species (ROUTES) Partnership of the US Agency for International Development (USAID) (ROUTES, 2019). A new set of guidelines for airlines has been released, and an IATA Environment Committee Wildlife Taskforce has been established to monitor progress and advise the following actions.

Thus, airlines and other civil aviation organisations are encouraged to unite to reduce the number of illegal animal trade animals and find significant routes to eliminate them (IATA, 2022a). Today, leading international carriers are participating in the agreement aimed at preventing illegal trafficking and returning animals to their natural habitat (IATA, 2022a). It has become one of the essential tasks of the existing civil aviation sphere and requires specific resources. At the same time, disregarding the problem might precondition the critical deterioration of the situation.

United for Wildlife (UfW) Transport Taskforce

For this reason, several international incentives are accepted as the way to address the problem. For instance, the United for Wildlife (UfW) Transport Taskforce is one of the agencies established to help the wildlife conservation efforts (IATA, 2022a). It examines the role of aviation in the illicit wildlife trade and outlines the methods to break links between transporters and consumers (IATA, 2022a). The agency cooperates with international environmental groups and governments to ensure the most popular routes are discovered and destroyed. It helps save thousands of animals per year and avoid critical harm done to protected areas. It means that incentives such as UfW play an essential role in wildlife conservation efforts and contribute to the gradual resolution of the illegal wildlife trafficking problem.

ICAO also plays a vital role in promoting positive change within the given sphere. Thus, Facilitation Panel introduced in 2021 outlines the major regulations as part of the collaborative approach in flight against wildlife trafficking (ICAO, 2021a). It focuses on creating the policies necessary for resolving the problem and creating the framework for the collaboration. Thus, it adheres to the ideas outlined by the United Nations and UfW and views them as fundamental for existing practice (ICAO, 2021a). Furthermore, it considers adopting a new recommended practice by states as a part of an integrated framework focused on resisting crime. Under these conditions, ICAO introduces policies necessary for addressing the issue and resolving it.

Conventions on International Trade

Furthermore, Facilitation Panel emphasises the critical importance of Live Animal Regulations (LAR) offered by IATA. It is one of the essential documents introducing a set of policies and necessary actions to ensure that airports and airlines can function appropriately and deliver on their wildlife commitments (IATA, 2022b). For this reason, LAR is viewed as the global standard for transporting live animals using aircraft (IATA, 2022b). The major goal of the given set of policies is to ensure that animals enjoy safe and humane environments during their transportation and are safe (IATA, 2022b). At the same time, violation of LAR can signalise the potentially high risk of wildlife trafficking and require specific responses from the authorities. In such a way, LAR establishes the paradigm for the successful functioning of airlines regarding wildlife trafficking. The violations of the major policies outlined by the document might lead to the emergence of critical problems and worsening of the situation in the sphere.

The convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora supports the ideas offered by LAR and views it as the central document helping to regulate the sphere. CITES also emphasises the importance of the IATA Perishable Cargo Regulations (PCR) because of its significance for the aviation industry and the transportation of animals and species that require specific conditions (IATA, 2022b). The inability to create the necessary conditions and ensure animals are safe might be considered a serious violation of the existing policy and should be investigated by the authorities to ensure no cases of wildlife trafficking are observed (IATA, 2022b). For this reason, IATA and CITES offer fundamental regulations for aligning the stable work of various agencies within the sphere and guaranteeing there is a significant improvement in the sphere attained due to the collaborative effort of all actors involved in the process.

As stated previously, the United Nations is an important actor in promoting international collaboration and integration. Thus, the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 71/326 Tackling illicit trafficking in wildlife is one of the significant documents introducing the policies to address the problem. It encourages all Member states to take part in the process and ensure the problem is recognised, addressed, and managed effectively (United Nations General Assembly, 2017). The policy views wildlife trafficking as a significant threat to wildlife diversity and conservation (United Nations General Assembly, 2017). For this reason, it becomes critical to address the problem and guarantee that airlines know how to address the problem and avoid helping criminals to transport animals, causing harm to them.

CITES Strategic Vision: 2021 2030 is a crucial document regulating wildlife trafficking efforts. Following the paper, it becomes critical to align the practical cooperation between various agencies with the primary goal of ensuring endangered species are protected and have access to necessary resources (CITES, 2020). By recognising the problem and planning how to address it, it is possible to guarantee significant progress is achieved, and the statistics linked to illegal trafficking will demonstrate improvement. Otherwise, there is a high risk of critical deterioration of the situation.

ROUTES (Reducing Opportunities for Unlawful Transport of Endangered Species) is another critical component of the existing framework designed to struggle against wildlife trafficking and reduce its negative impact on the environment. Thus, its primary goal is to disrupt the illicit replacement of species by reducing the use of legal transportation supply chains (ROUTES, 2019). It means that ROUTES (2019) aims at cooperating with governments, donors, agencies, and airlines to promote the necessary changes in the existing legislation to minimise the risk of wildlife trafficking. As a result, new policies and regulations emerge. For instance, ROUTES (2019) is responsible for offering statistics that might trigger public debates about the necessity to introduce specific regulatory measures to avoid further deterioration of the situation and save the wildlife. As a result, it is a strong agency responsible for introducing new policies working in the given sphere.

ROUTES helps to align the collaboration between the transportation and logistics industry, conservation organisations, and donors. For instance, one of the recent changes in the existing policy linked to wildlife trafficking is the introduction of technical assessments at international airports (IATA, 2022a). The major goal of the given intervention is raising the awareness levels linked to the problem and determining the effectiveness and adequacy of the procedures used by specialists to prevent acts of wildlife smuggling (IATA, 2022a). The experts from the WCO and IATA are responsible for assessments and detailed examinations of airports (IATA, 2022a). It helps to reveal areas that need improvement to ensure the problem is addressed and the number of animals transported illegally is reduced (IATA, 2022a). At the same time, the collected information helps to create new policies vital for the sphere and helps to ensure improvement (IATA, 2022a). In such a way, the work of ROUTES is an essential aspect of the modern struggle against wildlife trafficking as it helps to create new policies and implement them.

Furthermore, due to the work of various international policies, such as IATA, ICAO, and agreements under ROUTES or CITES, wildlife trafficking has become recognised as a severe issue by most states. The high level of criminalisation peculiar to the discussed topic and its links with the criminal gangs required specific actions from national governments to struggle against it. For this reason, most nations involved in the international air trade and interaction accepted the appropriate changes in their policies and legislation. For instance, in the USA, the criminalisation of wildlife trafficking depends on the harm done to it and the severity of the offense; however, it implies the most invasive forms of punishment (UNDOC, 2019). The Eliminate, Neutralize, and Disrupt (END) Wildlife Trafficking Act of 2016 and U.S. Presidential Executive Order on Enforcing Federal Laws with Respect to Transnational Criminal Organizations and Preventing International Trafficking 2017 acts order federal agencies to strengthen law enforcement regarding such crimes and ensure their reduction (UNDOC, 2019). These can be viewed as a result of international agencies’ activity and the growing awareness of the problem.

Ways to Address the Problem

Similar policies and measures are used in other states to address the problem and ensure it causes less harm to the environment. For instance, Mexico has severe policies aimed at regulating illegal wildlife trafficking. The Federal Penal Code views such offenses following international law and local regulations, meaning that imprisonment for nine years or a fine can be used as a penalty (UNDOC, 2019). Other nations acting within the framework offered by the IATA and ICAO and members of the Buckingham Palace agreement also introduce their regulations to address the problem. In such a way, the changes in state policies can be viewed as a result of the international activity and actions outlined by CITES and ROUTES as necessary for attaining progress in the sphere and reducing the number of animals suffering from this type of activity.

Reducing consumer demand is one of the possible methods of struggling against wildlife trafficking and attaining success in the sphere. Following the official statistics, most animal parts are transported for various purposes, such as decoration, cosmetics, and aesthetics (UNDOC, 2019). The same situation is observed with endangered species as they are transported per specific requests. For this reason, the international agencies focus on raising awareness about the negative aspects of wildlife trafficking and its negative impact on wildlife conservation (White, 2018). The new policy implies reducing consumer demand for various objects, such as ivory, to attain better outcomes (UNDOC, 2019). China’s Wildlife Protection Law is one example of how a new approach is used. It prohibits the trade in terrestrial wild animals for consumption (UNDOC, 2019). As a result, it is expected that a lower number of illegal operations with wildlife will occur.

ICAO and IATA support the policy aimed at building stronger awareness among people globally and airlines. Both organisations accept the critical importance of the collaborative approach and emphasise the necessity to align cooperation between all actors who may contribute to problem resolution. It means that airlines might cooperate with common individuals to ensure the causes of illegal trafficking are discovered and reported. In such a way, more effective reporting policies are introduced (UNDOC, 2019). For instance, CITES, along with ROUTES, introduced platforms for indicating the cases of wildlife trade (ROUTES, 2019). They help individuals to remain anonymous and, at the same time, inform the authorities about suspicious actions that might cause harm to the environment. It helps to improve the situation in the sphere and reduce the number of animals exported to various places annually, which is one of the significant tasks existing today.

Reporting is also an essential component of the strategy offered by Airports Council International (ACI) to struggle against wildlife trafficking. In Sustainability Strategy for Airports, the organisation provides a set of policies and actions that might be used to attain success and reduce the harm done to the environment by the annual activities of illicit traffickers (ACI, 2020). Thus, it recommends developing and implementing appropriate policies for addressing the problem of wildlife trafficking supported by potent whistleblowing measures (ACI, 2020). Complied with the demands introduced by ICAO, IATA, and CITES, such policies will help to attain significant improvement in the sphere and promote positive change (ACI, 2020). At the same time, whistleblowing is critical for discovering new cases of illegal wildlife trafficking and informing authorities about them to prevent new cases and ensure the situation is stable (ACI, 2020). In such a way, ACI’s Sustainability Strategy is an important document introducing new policies that should be used in the sphere.

ACI also offers a Combatting Wildlife Trafficking Handbook offering a list of actions to address the issue. For instance, a zero tolerance policy is viewed as one of the main methods to struggle against criminals involved in the work of organisations responsible for selling animals illegally (Airports Council International, 2021a). In numerous cases, such groups have their own people working in airlines, which makes their work more effective. For this reason, a zero tolerance policy is viewed as the method to respond to this threat (ACI, 2021a). It implies establishing such policy by airports implying the procedures if any employee is found guilty of participating in wildlife trafficking (ACI, 2021a). Furthermore, such cases and collected evidence can be given to local authorities, such as the police, to ensure the whole group is found and arrested (ACI, 2021a). The presented approach might help to attain significant improvement in the sphere and avoid the emergence of new criminal groups working with individuals within airlines.

For this reason, policies offering clear instructions on how and when to report acquire the top priority. IATA (2022) emphasises that all individuals working in airlines share the responsibility of detecting cases of wildlife trafficking as it is the only working method to reduce their number and struggle with criminals. For this reason, a set of policies designed to introduce clear guidelines on reporting is critical to improving the existing situation. It can be performed by using innovative techniques and tools available for major carriers at the moment. For instance, ACI (2020) offers integrating Airport Scientific E modules as part of a renovation policy aimed at detecting new wildlife trafficking cases and responding to them. It would help to avoid critical deterioration of the situation and, at the same time, offer new data collection tools for agencies to plan their actions and improve collaboration.

The 31st World Annual General ACI Assembly accepted a set of specific resolutions regulating the further development of the sphere. Thus, Resolution #2 outlines the necessity to reaffirm the member’s airport commitment to preventing wildlife trafficking and attaining better outcomes through the collaborative effort (ACI, 2021b). In such a way, the document becomes a vital policy regulating the functioning of the sphere and ensuring that all members previously engaged in the activities outlined by IATA, ICAO, and CITES are ready to continue their collaboration and ensure the wildlife trafficking problem is given much attention (ACI, 2021b). Following the resolution, the sustainable development of airlines is impossible without giving attention to the problem of illicit transportation of animals. For this reason, ACI’s activity becomes an essential contribution to the progress and helps to coordinate efforts made by various agencies.

The positive effects and changes in the sphere are achieved due to the activity of various agencies and policies offered by them. These include IATA, ICAO, ACI, and such fundamental programs as CITES. Most of the policies working at the moment can be viewed as a result of the growing awareness linked to wildlife trafficking, and these agencies desire to promote positive change (Sas-Rofles et al., 2019). For this reason, the modern civil aviation sphere is characterised by the reconsideration of previous methods to introduce new, more effective ones (Roberts and Hinsley, 2020). It implies reporting, whistleblowing, and zero tolerance policies necessary to detect and investigate new cases of wildlife trafficking. At the same time, the regulations create the basis for future improvement and discussion of the most relevant challenges aviation faces nowadays, which is critical for continuous improvement.

Challenges and Conclusion

However, despite numerous attempts to preserve the balance and save species, the situation remains complex. Today, humanity faces a high risk of a new wave of massive extinction (Von Essen et al., 2022). It means it becomes critical to increase the effectiveness of efforts and engage numerous stakeholders. Von Essen et al. (2022) say that social media platforms provide a perfect opportunity for accomplishing this task. Today, it is one of the most fast-evolving phenomena with millions of users globally. It means that potentially, wildlife preservation activists acquire millions of supporters from various countries who are ready to help, invest, and act (Foxwell-Norton and Konkes,2019). Under these conditions, it becomes critical to use this tool to attain better results.

Building awareness about the importance of wildlife conservation by using social media is one of the essential elements of environmental campaigns nowadays. Their effectiveness and impact on the audience can be improved using data collected through air observation and control. Sin and He (2019) assume that photos made from planes, accurate statistics, and images evidencing the actual scope of the problem attract more social media users and promote a better understanding of the true scope of the problem. Under these conditions, combining aviation and social media, it is possible to attain positive outcomes and ensure new stakeholders are engaged, which is vital for products and the ability to save animals.

Altogether, the existing body of research shows the critical importance of aviation for wildlife trafficking. The combined efforts of multiple agencies, such as ICAO, IATA, CITES, ROUTES, and UfW, are focused on addressing the problem and creating a solution that might help to stop the further deterioration of the situation and promote the positive change. These organisations also introduce several important policies critical for the sphere and outline the ways how various stakeholders can collaborate to attain better results.

Research Questions

The proposed study focuses on investigating the role of aviation in wildlife trafficking. Currently, aviation might perform a wide range of tasks associated with protecting nature, animals’ habitats, and fauna. For this reason, it is vital to investigate existing regulations and incentives linked to monitoring wildlife trafficking and aligning the international collaboration at different levels. In such a way, considering the information and aspects mentioned above, the following research questions can be formulated:

• What are the major policies governing aviation regarding wildlife trafficking?
• What are the priorities among international aviation bodies regarding wildlife trafficking?

The proposed research questions will help to acquire an enhanced vision of how existing agencies and airlines struggle against illicit trafficking and the scope of the problem.

Guided by the research aims, the following objectives were introduced:

• identify whether there are policies regulating the wildlife trafficking in aviation
• explore how the major priorities outlined in the existing documents are linked to wildlife trafficking and affect it
• to reveal strategies introduced by international agencies and governments to address illicit wildlife trafficking
• to reveal the major themes covered by policy documents and current agreements
• to conclude about the relevance of existing goals and their clarity.

Achieving the aforementioned objectives is critical for the proposed study because of several factors. First, the collected data will cultivate a better vision of the problem and help to start a discussion of the issue under research from the essential points. Second, determining the major policies, it is possible to focus on how they help boost the effectiveness of wildlife trafficking efforts and answer the research questions. At the same time, reviewing the academic literature, it will be possible to address the gap in knowledge linked to wildlife trafficking and its impact on the current situation. There is still little knowledge about how to combine international agencies’ efforts that might help to promote the better use of aviation to improve the current state of species. For this reason, the research will contribute to the existing body of knowledge and offer some insights that can be used in natural conditions to improve wildlife trafficking efforts.

The proposed research questions and objectives create the basis for the study. The scope of the problem related to protecting species and their control introduces the need for the in-depth investigation and collection of relevant data. At the same time, aviation is viewed as a potent data collection tool providing access to various regions and increasing the effectiveness of control and monitoring. That is why the following research questions might lead to a better understanding of how aviation is employed to enhance the effectiveness of wildlife trafficking.

Methodology

The offered research questions and the study’s objectives influence the choice of the research paradigm and methods to collect data and process it. It is expected that the qualitative approach will help to gather necessary information and process it. Several factors explain the choice of research philosophy. First, qualitative methods effectively collect specific information about an investigated phenomenon and processing (Creswell and Clark, 2017). It is more flexible and allows researchers to incorporate the existing human experience and acquire credible results (Creswell and Creswell, 2018). Moreover, it will enable considering other studies linked to the same area and integrating them into the current research (Creswell and Poth, 2017). The qualitative method is viewed as the preferable one for this investigation and answering formulated research questions.

Research Paradigm

The research also rests on the inductive research paradigm, viewed as an appropriate method to investigate the selected issue. The framework implies that a set of observations and preliminary collected data can be used to make general conclusions and formulate a specific theory (Creswell and Poth, 2017). Using credible information from various sources, it is possible to offer the idea and prove it, which is vital for a better understanding of the problem. Additionally, inductive reasoning might help answer the research questions formulated above as it will form the basis for cogitations and enhanced analysis.

The research is supported by specific data collection and processing tools. First of all, the literature review is employed to improve the overall understanding of the problem and formulate research questions. The significant advantage of the given tool is that it helps integrate other credible resources into the project and ensures all current views on how aviation is used in wildlife trafficking are considered (Creswell and Poth, 2017). For this reason, only relevant resources, such as academic articles, international aviation agencies’ reports, and scholarly resources, are employed. It will ensure the research’s relevance, credibility, and practical utility.

The choice of inductive reasoning is also linked to several factors. First of all, it provides a researcher with increased flexibility, which is vital for conducting a qualitative study. Analysing the selected sources, it is possible to formulate the theory and ensure all factors discovered in the course of research are considered (Brinkmann, 2017). Furthermore, inductive reasoning implies working close to the existing context, which is vital for the analysis of problems that are relevant at the moment. A better vision of the context helps to understand the nature of relations between investigated phenomena and reality and make specific conclusions. Finally, inductive reasoning might create a new theory, serving as the basis for following projects and investigations in the same field (Bhattacharya, 2017). Under these conditions, the given benefits and the ability to use inductive reasoning with the qualitative data collection methods explain the choice and the paradigm’s applicability.

As it comes from the research questions formulated previously, the study aims at understanding the current state of knowledge linked to how aviation is used in wildlife conservation and its analysis. For this reason, interpretivism is selected as the framework for a better understanding the reality and its analysis. Several aspects explain the choice. It allows the researcher to interpret elements of the study regarding the current interest in the problem under research and its nature (Bhattacharya, 2017). As a result, it is possible to form the method meeting all study purposes and helping to answer the research questions and meet the study’s objectives. At the same time, the interpretive paradigm ensures a high level of objectivity (Brinkmann, 2017). It assumes that no reality exists without structures and objects interacting. For this reason, by discussing specific concepts linked to the issue and analysing them, it is possible to acquire credible data about the researched problem.

At the same time, the interpretive research paradigm aligns with the qualitative research methods. Interpretive reviews imply focusing on the existing data linked to the research objectives, synthesising it, and using it to make specific conclusions (Brinkmann, 2017). Moreover, induction is employed to process the available information and formulate a particular theory (Creswell and Poth, 2017). For this reason, it becomes a potent tool to conduct a study linked to a specific phenomenon and conclude about its role in society at the moment. The acquired concepts might be integrated into the research and used to formulate particular conclusions. That is why interpretivism is viewed as the paradigm that can be used in the study and contribute to the better investigation of the issue, its analysis, and the creation of the background for future research.

Furthermore, thematic analysis and inductive coding will be used to analyse qualitative data. It will help discover data about using aviation in wildlife trafficking and conclude its role in promoting better outcomes. Using codes derived from analysed data helps to acquire the better understanding of the existing information and conclude about the current state of the problem (Creswell and Poth, 2017). The data acquired in the course of review will be organised thematically better to understand the issue under concern and its better analysis. Finally, inductive coding will help to group findings and outline the major concepts linked to the problem under research.

The framework of the study is formed by several assumptions. First, the research rests on the idea that wildlife trafficking is a severe concern threatening endangered species. Second, the recent changes in the given sphere and new policies might help to promote positive change and attain better results. The framework is formed resting on recent studies and agencies’ assumptions. Altogether, the data collection methods mentioned above and the research philosophy align with the research questions and objectives of the study. The literature review will help create the framework for the discussion. The inductive paradigm and the interpretive approach will help to use the acquired data and integrate it into the research to define and discuss certain concepts. As a result, it is expected that the study will offer credible, relevant, and reliable information about aviation use in wildlife conservation.

Dataset Formation and Data Collection

The dataset is comprised of policy documents on wildlife trafficking introduced by international organisations such as ICAO, IATA, UfW, CITES, ROUTES and UN. There are several factors justifying this choice. First of all, it is explained by the peculiarities of qualitative research. Using this framework, it is impossible to support findings with accurate statistical or numerical data. For this reason, it becomes critical to guarantee that only credible and relevant sources are used. The policy documents, declarations, and conventions created within the analysed framework under the ICAO, IATA, UfW, and UN possess the needed level of credibility and can be viewed as reliable sources. At the same time, such documents outline the scope of actions and measures necessary to address the problem of wildlife trafficking and resolve it. Under these conditions, including such papers in the data set is explained by the necessity to find reliable sources and conduct an in-depth investigation of the problem.

They will be analysed thematically to find the major themes and structure them regarding the most common issues. Several factors explain the choice of the data analysis method. First of all, this approach is helpful in summarising key features coming from the large data set (Nowell, et al., 2017). It means that massive data portions can be analysed and structured using specific codes and themes, which is vital for a better understanding of the selected problem (Nowell, et al., 2017). Considering the fact that wildlife trafficking in aviation is a serious concern, there are numerous sources linked to the problem (Nowell, et al., 2017). It means that using the thematic analysis is critical for working with multiple research works, books, and documents to make desired conclusions. Second, the thematic analysis will provide the desired level of flexibility, which is another factor explaining its use. In such a way, the data set will be processed by using this method. It will help to acquire an improved understanding of the current focus and the most problematic and relevant issues that should be addressed while speaking about wildlife conservation and civil aviation.

The documents will be found using the Internet and reviewing the ICAO, IATA, and other organisations’ websites. The accessibility of documents and necessary papers is one of the major advantages of the selected approach to collecting data. Most organisations working within the civil aviation sphere and focused on addressing the problem of wildlife trafficking offer numerous open access resources that can be used for the investigation. For this reason, using the Internet is the preferable method of looking for the required papers and documents. Additionally, the organisations’ websites, such as CITES, ROUTES, UN, and UfW, provide users with a wide range of sources necessary for analysing the problem and acquiring a better understanding. The preference will be given to documents published within the last ten years to trace the changes in the paradigm and make an appropriate conclusion. At the same time, some conventions and documents, such as CITES, might be accepted earlier and can be used for the research. It will help to understand the scope of the problem and how the possible methods to address it evolved over time.

In such a way, the study benefits from the specific approach selected to collect the necessary data. Working with the documents found on the Internet and using websites guarantees that the required pool of sources will be created. At the same time, the accessibility of data and its credibility increases the practical utility of findings and their ability to be used by other researchers to continue investigation within the given sphere. Furthermore, the thematic analysis requires big data portions to find common themes and structure the acquired findings. For this reason, the selected approach to data collection and analysis meets the objectives of the study and helps to answer the research questions by structuring and processing information coming from documents, agreements, and conventions.

Data Analysis

The data analysis will be performed following the following scheme:

The first stage of the thematic analysis implies familiarising with the acquired data. Thus, the dataset for the investigation is formed of the following documents (See the Appendix for the full versions):

1. United for Wildlife Transport Taskforce Buckingham Palace Declaration
2. ACI Resolution #2. Sustainable Development of the Aviation Ecosystem
3. CITES Strategic Vision: 2021 2030
4. UN Resolution 71/326. Tackling illicit trafficking in wildlife
5. ICAO Facilitation Panel. Collaborative Approach in the Fight Against Wildlife Trafficking
6. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
7. H.R.2494 – Eliminate, Neutralize, and Disrupt Wildlife Trafficking Act of 2016
8. IATA Resolution on the Illegal Trade in Wildlife
9. ICAO Airport’s Efforts Against Wildlife Trafficking
10. ICAO Prevention of Illegal Wildlife Trafficking via Commercial Aviation
11. UNDOC World Wildlife Crime Report
12. IATA Memorandum of Understanding
13. USAID Biodiversity Conservation and Forestry Programs
14. U.S. Agency for International Development report to Congress on programs in forestry and the conservation of biodiversity during fiscal year 2020: results and funding
15. Wildlife Trafficking Prevention through Training at Airports

The selected conventions, regulations, policies, and declarations evidence that the selected problem attracts much attention. The data acquired in the course of preliminary investigation shows that wildlife trafficking in aviation is mainly connected with the activity of global regulatory bodies such as ICAO, UN, UfW, IATA, and conventions such as CITES designed to stop the further deterioration of the situation and create the basis for the future improvement. Furthermore, the relevant resources offer mostly qualitative data on the topic. It means that the thematic analysis is an effective tool to conduct the research and conclude about the existence of certain regularities and relations within the investigated sphere.

The second stage of the thematic analysis implies generating codes for the following thematic analysis. It will help to reduce lots of data into smaller pieces with specific meanings and work with them (Creswell and Clark, 2017). For this reason, it is a potent and valuable tool to work with big amounts of data related to a particular aspect. As stated previously, inductive coding would be used to perform this task. It means that codes will be derived from the data as a result of investigation and analysis.

Thus, eight credible documents were selected to comprise the dataset. The choice is explained by their acceptance by most companies working in the aviation sector, their importance at the global level, and their impact on the future development of aviation. The data collection process included selecting the document and its reading and analysis to outline codes and comparing it with other papers and codes acquired from them. Only reliable and reputable sources from official agencies and bodies were selected. These include reports by ICAO, IATA, ACI, UN, CITES, and academic sources and journals (ICAO, 2019a; IATA, no date; ACI, 2016; UNDOC, 2020; Lavorgna et al., 2020). The documents offered by nonofficial bodies or organisations were not included in the dataset. As a result of the preliminary dataset analysis, the following codes were generated:

1. Policy
2. Information sharing
3. System
4. Illegal wildlife trade
5. Zero tolerance policy
6. Awareness
7. Training
8. Collaboration and cooperation
9. Criminalisation
10. Integrated framework
11. Convention

Searching for preliminary themes is the second phase of the analysis. A theme can be defined as a pattern that includes important information related to the research questions (Creswell and Clark, 2017). For this reason, it is vital to dissemble the dataset and structure it by using themes. The codes formulated above should be used to find the necessary pieces and speak about them while analysing. Thus, the following themes and codes associated with them can be formulated:

Reviewing the acquired themes is the next step of the thematic analysis. It is vital to ensure the formulated themes make sense and find information linked to them. Otherwise, the acquired findings will not be relevant and impact the credibility of the results. The dataset analysis shows that selected documents have specific similarities emerging from the nature of the problem and the ways it can be addressed. The four outlined themes emerge from the codes and are touched upon in the regulatory papers and conventions. These make sense regarding the topic and could be investigated to acquire its improved understanding. In such a way, the selected codes helped to formulate relevant and appropriate themes vital for the discussion of the research topic and answering the questions formulated above. Furthermore, the themes touch upon different aspects of wildlife trafficking and promote a better understanding of the problem under investigation. For this reason, they should be viewed as appropriate ones and used for the research.

The fifth phase of the thematic analysis is focused on defining the themes. It is vital to determine the main ideas and conclude about the meaning of every theme. Thus, for the research paper, the selected themes are linked to the central idea of struggling against wildlife trafficking. They are interconnected, as most of them imply cooperation at the global level between various agencies with the primary goal to attain significant improvement and design guidelines necessary for addressing the problem. The selected themes can be defined to promote their better understanding:

Using the acquired themes following thematic map can be offered:

From the scheme, one can see that addressing the selected documents revolve around the problem of addressing the wildlife trafficking. The suggested measures and offerings can be structured into the four main themes, that are linked to the broader issue. Information falling under these themes is vital for understanding the problem of wildlife trafficking in civil aviation.

Finally, the last stage of the thematic analysis presupposes structuring the acquired information and making a final report that can answer the formulated research questions and promote a better understanding of the issue under research. For the study, the inductive codes formulated above and the themes are fundamental for analyzing the current work of the civil aviation industry and activities aimed at struggling against illicit wildlife trafficking. By investigating the dataset linked to the problem using thematic analysis, it is possible to create the background for the discussion and acquire credible results. At the same time, the four big themes outlined as a result of the analysis should be used to structure all findings and present them in the result section. It will help to conduct an in-depth investigation of the problem and conclude about the relevant international agreements and efforts aimed at creating a practical solution that would help to avoid the further deterioration of the situation globally.

Altogether, thematic analysis supported by inductive coding is used as the major data analysis tool. They help to introduce the list of codes consisting of ten items and apply them to the vast amount of data acquired during the preliminary literature review. As a result, the four major themes could be formulated and used to speak about the problem of wildlife trafficking and the role aviation plays in reducing the number of animals transported annually. It means that thematic analysis is a potent tool that can be used to structure, process, and present acquired data.

Results

The analysis of the dataset helps to acquire specific results promoting the better understanding of the discussed issue. Thus, the derived themes are common for the selected documents. The following table represents how many times they are identified in the dataset

International cooperation is the first theme acquired when analysing the data. The analysis shows that it is mentioned 21 times in the documents comprising the dataset. For instance, the UN resolution states that the problem of wildlife trafficking “requires enhanced transnational and regional cooperation and coordination” (United Nations, 2017). Civil aviation sector functions globally, with multiple airlines representing different regions. It means that measures and actions accepted and used by only one state might fail (Lavorgna et al., 2020). For this reason, only international cooperation is viewed as a key to resolving the problem and attaining the existing goals. The data analysis also evidences the idea of combining forces with the private sector to attain significant improvement and guarantee illegal trade of wildlife products will be stopped (IATA, 2022a). It can be performed both globally and regionally.

In such a way, the dataset supports the critical importance of the international cooperation. It introduces the idea that only the collaborated effort might be effective enough to address the existing problems and resolve them. Illicit wildlife trafficking implies transporting species from one area to another, meaning that at least two countries might be involved (ACI, 2021; USAID, 2013; USAID, 2020). In fact, the number of potential actors is even higher. For this reason, it becomes critical to trace the illegal activity at all destination points, which means that international cooperation is the only possible measure to achieve the goal.

Finally, the theme of international cooperation is linked to the systematic nature of wildlife conservation efforts and illicit wildlife trafficking. The data offer the idea that climate change increases the topicality of environmental problems globally (Antonopoulos, 2021; UN, ACI). Under these conditions, it becomes central to ensure all factors linked to the mass wave of species extinction are addressed. Furthermore, illicit trafficking is closely related to global organised crime, which also requires a systemic approach. Under these conditions, the theme of international cooperation acquires the top priority, and the existing documents, regulations, and conventions emphasise the critical importance of this aspect. Reviewing the documents and recommendations offered by the agencies, it is possible to conclude that these papers establish the framework for fostering cooperation between airlines and nations.

Data analysis also shows that most influential actors and agencies develop and introduce new regulations and laws to promote the positive change. It results from the activity of numerous gangs which is one of the most important factors influencing the further development of the problem and explaining the high level of its complexity and sophistication (Antonopoulos, 2021). The theme “law enforcement and punishment” and codes such as “illegal” and “zero tolerance” are met 33 times in the dataset. For instance, the UN resolution states that the problem of wildlife trafficking and its criminalisation should be addressed “in accordance with national legislation and international law” (United Nations General Assembly, 2017). It means that the growing criminalisation of illegal activities is considered a serious challenge (Wong, 2021). The selected documents emphasise the necessity of its addressing by introducing new laws and aligning the collaboration with national law enforcement agencies (ACI, 2021; United Nations General Assembly, 2017). It is viewed as a possible resolution to the wildlife trafficking problem.

A systemic approach is another theme acquired after the thematic analysis. It is mentioned 30 times in the documents selected for the analysis. It is associated with the codes “framework”, “information sharing”, and “system”. For instance, the Buckingham palace agreement outlines the necessity to “develop a secure, harmonised system for passing information about suspected illegal wildlife trade” (UfW, 2016, p. 1). ACI (2021b, p. 1) declaration outlines the importance of “long term sustainability goals and system resilience”. In such a way, the dataset proves the idea that addressing wildlife trafficking requires a robust framework functioning as a part of a strong and organised system, helping to reveal new vulnerabilities and address them. Otherwise, there is a high risk of critical deterioration of the situation.

Thus, the dataset analysis shows that the selected themes are critical for wildlife trafficking and have several vital meanings. First, the focus on international collaboration means that the wildlife trafficking policy will continue to change following the directions outlined in the analysed documents. Regional and global airlines accept the necessity of international collaboration as the only way to address the problem of illicit trade (ACI, 2016; USAID, 2020). It implies closer work on the issue and introducing agreed measures to ensure the traffickers have fewer changes to use the existing loopholes and damage the wildlife (Utermohlen and Baine, 2017). Moreover, the information from the dataset shows that this type of change is inevitable as the highly globalised world requires shared measures and a systemic approach (Stephenson, Lohmann and Spasojevic, 2018). For this reason, airlines will have to accept the responsibility for struggling against the traffickers and reducing the number of animals transported annually.

Furthermore, the results prove the scope of the existing wildlife trafficking policy’s change. The previous approaches are viewed as ineffective and outdated because of their impossibility of attaining positive outcomes (IATA, no date). That is why the dataset outlines the existing alteration of policies regulating the sphere. Based on the acquired results, it is possible to conclude that the new regulations will focus on creating a specific framework characterised by the close interaction and collaboration between all actors engaged in the process (Sas-Rofles et al., 2019). Moreover, severer punishments and stricter control over the operations can be the next step aimed at improving the existing policies (ICAO, 2019a). It is evidenced by the already introduced measures, such as new measures to address the problem (ICAO, 2019b). Altogether, the wildlife trafficking policy will continue to evolve and become more dependent on international collaboration and similar responses to the problem.

At the same time, the findings corroborate the information acquired from the literature review. As stated in the corresponding section, ICAO, IATA, ACI, and other agencies view cooperation as the only possible resolution to the problem (ICAO, 2019b, ACI, 2016). The most influential agencies and actors also insist on the necessity of the systemic approach as the key to success (Lavorgna et al., 2020). The results of dataset analysis are similar as all documents emphasise the critical importance of cooperation. Furthermore, it can help to form a new framework for sharing information, experience, and recent news about wildlife traffickers (Sas-Rofles et al., 2019). Under these conditions, the findings remain relevant and can be proven by the already existing data on the topic. The policy regulating the sphere will continue to evolve in terms of global collaboration and interaction.

“Working with individuals” is the fourth theme generated after reviewing the dataset. It is associated with the codes “training”, “awareness”, and “reporting”. The analysis shows that it is mentioned 18 times in the dataset’s documents. For instance, the Buckingham Palace Declaration says it is vital to “Increase passenger, customer, client, and staff awareness about the nature, scale, and consequences of illegal wildlife trade” (UfW, 2016, p. 1). Furthermore, Facilitation Panel by ICAO (2021b, p. 1) states, “while training and awareness of aviation staff are crucial, their effectiveness relies on the existence of integrated reporting”. Raising awareness among staff is viewed as one of the major objectives today as it helps to address the problem of wildlife trafficking in various airports and airlines (ICAO, 2021b). Under these conditions, the thematic analysis shows that working with individuals is an important theme in terms of wildlife trafficking efforts. Raising individuals’ awareness by using various means, including social media, is an essential task of agencies regulating the work of the aviation sphere (IATA, 2016). That is why it is crucial to align the appropriate training and education for employees.

Under the terms of selected agreements and Buckingham Palace Declaration, ICAO, IATA, and UN offer specific measures, such as training and better reporting, for the personnel to know how to address the problem and work with illicit traffickers (ICAO, 2021b). The Buckingham Palace declaration is associated with the UfW Transport Taskforce, meaning the agency becomes an essential actor in cultivating awareness about the problem and attracting people’s attention to it. The document creates the basis for developing a new security system and helps to limit the illegal trade in various regions.

Altogether, the thematic analysis using specific codes and reviewing the selected dataset shows the relevance of the generated themes and their importance when speaking about wildlife trafficking. Most agencies, governments, and nations accept the necessity of introducing a collaborative effort to struggle against illicit wildlife traffickers and stop the further deterioration of the environment and wildlife (ACI, 2021; IATA, 2016a; ICAO, 2021). The themes “international cooperation”, “systemic approach”, “law enforcement and punishment”, and “working with individuals” are met in all documents from 15 to more than 30 times. Declarations and conventions such as CITES, UN Resolution, ICAO Facilitation Panel, and the Buckingham palace agreement supported by the IATA’s efforts create the basis for further cooperation and better responses linked to the problem of illicit animal trade. The results help to answer the research questions. Thus, the first one was:

• What are the major policies governing aviation regarding wildlife trafficking?

Thus, the Buckingham Palace declaration, CITES, ICAO and IATA agreements, and UN and ACI declarations are the fundamental documents forming the framework for positive change and future cooperation. These documents create the basis for further positive change as they outline the directions for future development (Swaisgood, 2020). In the long run, the policies introduced in the given declarations can serve as milestones helping to trace the achievements and the progress. Furthermore, it is possible to admit the tendency toward the revitalisation of the given sphere as more regulations and documents emerge compared to the previous decades (Swaisgood, 2020). It shows the growing level of awareness linked to the problem and the correct understanding of the threat coming from wildlife trafficking. It is possible to forecast that the regulations can be revised to meet new requirements and ensure the animals enjoy better protection.

The second research question was:

• What are the priorities among international aviation bodies regarding wildlife trafficking?

From the data set, it is possible to conclude that the policies and regulations outline several essential priorities. These include international cooperation, struggling against organised crime by introducing specific laws and creating a systemic approach, and training for professionals involved in the functioning of the sphere (Roberts and Hinsley, 2020). These priorities are fundamental for the development of civil aviation and its struggle against wildlife traffickers in the future. Thus, the direction for the development is selected regarding the existing threats and the statistics, showing that the isolated airlines’ attempts to struggle against traffickers remain ineffective (Burbridge, 2018). For this reason, it is vital to shift priorities from the regional work aimed at reducing the number of animals transported to global cooperation and work. For this reason, the international aviation bodies recognise the necessity to introduce new priorities and ensure they are transparent for all stakeholders.

Altogether, the dataset shows signs of improving collaboration regarding wildlife trafficking. The major policies are developed using information from various sources, such as the UN, ICAO, and IATA reports. It means that information from regional agencies is used by bigger and more influential bodies and establishes the basis for creating new, more effective measures (Roberts and Hinsley, 2020). The focus on improving data sharing and exchange is another critical part of the new systemic approach (Burbridge, 2018). In the long run, it means that agencies will be able to respond to new threats faster and provide the evidence necessary for the practical struggle against illicit traffickers. It is also possible to expect that more actors will be involved, and the role of national governments will also increase because of the criminalisation of the sphere and the necessity to provide severe punishments to criminals.

Discussion, Limitations and Future Research

The research aimed to investigate the problem of wildlife trafficking in aviation and analyse the major policies regulating the sphere. Based on the analysis, it was found that international cooperation is the most powerful solution to the problem (Boratto and Gibbs, 2021). Moreover, it should be supported by a systemic approach and training for specialists to attain successful outcomes. The new laws and regulations will help to struggle against criminals operating within the sphere. The research also had the following objectives:

• identify whether there are policies regulating wildlife trafficking in aviation
• explore how the major priorities outlined in the existing documents are linked to wildlife trafficking and affect it
• to reveal strategies introduced by international agencies and governments to address illicit wildlife trafficking
• to reveal the major themes covered by policy documents and existing agreements
• to conclude about the relevance of current goals and their clarity.

The objectives were attained due to the analysis of the selected documents. It was identified that there is a set of policies and declarations regulating the work of civil aviation. The major priorities correlated with the outlined themes and include international cooperation, the creation of the systemic approach, the introduction of new legal regulations, and training (Arroyo-Quiroz and Wyatt, 2019). These themes are frequently mentioned by most authors and agencies, meaning that they are critical for the sector and reducing the negative effect of wildlife trafficking (Arroyo-Quiroz and Wyatt, 2019). Using the information acquired in the course of the investigation, it was concluded that agencies are focused on long-term outcomes and creating a new paradigm of relations to address the issue.

The data was acquired by using the qualitative method and thematic analysis. Thus, the selected research method and paradigm might have some limits that should be mentioned as they might influence the results. First of all, because the qualitative research paradigm is selected, the acquired results cannot be verified by using qualitative or statistical data. For this reason, the credibility of findings depends on the relevance and credibility of selected sources and the information presented by them. For this reason, it is vital to work with documents containing only correct and up-to-date information; otherwise, the practical utility of the paper will suffer. At the same time, the impossibility of supporting findings with numerical data means that it is vital to conduct an in-depth analysis of the acquired data and introduce specific categories helping to understand the received information and process it to present to other investigators.

In such a way, it becomes vital to ensure there is no bias in research impacting the results and credibility of the study. Bias can be viewed as a mistake in processing data occurring at any investigation stage and impacting the outcomes (Creswell and Creswell, 2018). Addressing systematic errors and ensuring the study is free of mistakes is vital for the credibility of the findings. The presented research is conducted in terms of the accepted approach for thematic analysis, which guarantees the objectivity of results and their applicability. For instance, to manage bias, a research plan was created and followed. It helped to avoid disregarding some aspects or forgetting about them (Creswell and Clark, 2017). Furthermore, the data collection and analysis processes were not linked to a specific outcome. On the contrary, using inductive coding, it was possible to avoid forming initial expectations and using them as the guideline for the whole research.

The credibility of findings is also guaranteed by the reliability and validity of the research. Reliability is determined as the extent to which the investigation results can be reproduced if the study is repeated under the same conditions (Creswell and Creswell, 2018). It ensures that no critical mistakes were made and the data is relevant (Creswell and Creswell, 2018). As for the presented study, the data collection and analysis process is clear and transparent. The methodology, data collection and data analysis sections outline how the needed dataset was collected and comprised. For this reason, it is possible to replicate the study and acquire the same results. It means that the results of the presented investigation are reliable and can be used in other works devoted to the same issue and aimed at investigating the problem of wildlife trafficking.

The validity of the research also guarantees the absence of bias. Creswell and Creswell, (2018) define it as the extent to which the results measure the selected problem and are representative of the issue under investigation. The validity of the proposed research comes from the relations between acquired data and theoretical structure. The literature conducted within a study shows that most agencies, regulatory bodies, and governments focus on improving international collaboration, introducing an adequate response to wildlife trafficking, and preparing individuals for new challenges (Creswell and Creswell, 2018). The results of dataset analysis support the same ideas. All documents accept the necessity of a systemic approach, generation of the new framework, and better collaboration at different levels. In such a way, the validity of the research is attained due to the correlation between the findings, theories, and the use of appropriate data collection and analysis tools.

Another drawback of the research method might be linked to the thematic analysis and inductive coding. This approach implies introducing a set of codes regarding the acquired information, its investigation, and understanding. However, the results and the effectiveness of coding might depend on the qualification of the researcher, his/her understanding of the issue, and the way information is analysed (Creswell and Creswell, 2018). For this reason, the outcomes might depend on the perspective the researcher used and his/her objectivity. This factor should be viewed as a significant limitation that should be mentioned as the effectiveness and relevance of coding influence the credibility of results and the practical utility of the paper. The issue was addressed by holding the neutral position and following the basic guidelines for inductive coding and thematic analysis, which is vital for the credibility of findings. The objectivity was also maximised by avoiding to make judgements about the effectiveness of specific policies. The dataset was analysed regarding the statistical data and information. The objectivity of the researcher was also guaranteed by the absence of personal interests in the results (Creswell and Clark, 2017). Moreover, the bias was minimised by using the alternative judgements and data sources, supporting same ideas (Creswell, J. and Clark, P. (2017). As a result, regarding the comparatively small size of dataset, high level of validity and objectivity was achieved.

The present study can also be used as the basis for future research. The problem of wildlife trafficking can be viewed as a part of a bigger issue, such as wildlife conservation. For this reason, future research can focus on investigating the role aviation plays in wildlife conservation. It implies the bigger scope of the research as additional themes and topics should be addressed (Arroyo-Quiroz and Wyatt, 2019). For instance, the given research shows that the illicit trade causes significant harm to numerous populations. At the same time, there are some areas that are traditionally viewed as more attractive for traffickers as they have species that can be sold. For this reason, future research can focus on investigating the work of aviation in such areas and the factors increasing the risks of the emergence and development of organised crime groups within the aviation sector.

Another possible direction for the research is linked to the findings acquired in the course of the study. The existing regulatory documents and policies emphasise the critical importance of wildlife trafficking and the necessity to address the problem to avoid undesired outcomes. The main themes outlined in the dataset include international cooperation, systemic approach, law enforcement, and working with individuals. The last theme looks promising for the new investigation as it offers numerous opportunities for cross-sectional research. Digital and physical security frameworks might be combined with human resource management to address the problem of wildlife trafficking within organisations (Anom, 2021). It means that the future research implies focusing on security systems as a way to reduce the number of traded animals and reveal groups working with the aviation sector. Information acquired previously shows that ICAO and IATA recognise the necessity of improving the existing frameworks to enhance whistleblowing, reporting, and detecting activities (Sollund, 2022). For this reason, future research might focus on looking for innovative ways to find traffickers within airlines. It means that human resource management strategies and methods can be combined with the newest approaches to data and information security and employed to attain the better results (Anom, 2021). These might also include better monitoring, control, training, and security scans and direct connection with the regulatory bodies to ensure there is a reduced number of opportunities for traffickers to use the loopholes in the security systems and commit a crime. In such a way, the scope of the discussed problem means there are numerous directions for future research that can be addressed during the following investigation.

Conclusion

Altogether, the problem of wildlife trafficking is one of the topical issues for the modern civil aviation sector. The data acquired during the literature review shows that thousands of animals are replaced from their natural habitat annually (Arroyo-Quiroz and Wyatt, 2019). It causes severe damage to the environment and reduces the effectiveness of wildlife conservation efforts (Anom, 2021). Under these conditions, it becomes critical to address the problem of wildlife trafficking and offer an effective and practical resolution to it. However, the scope of the challenge requires a collaborative effort to ensure all aspects of wildlife trafficking are addressed. Agencies such as ICAO, IATA, ACI, and UN offer policies and regulations that are expected to create the basis for better collaboration at different stages. For this reason, the paper focused on analysing these agreements and their contribution to resolving the problem. The following questions were introduced:

• What are the major policies governing aviation regarding wildlife trafficking?
• What are the priorities among international aviation bodies regarding wildlife trafficking?

The following objectives supported them:

• identify whether there are policies regulating wildlife trafficking in aviation
• explore how the major priorities outlined in the existing documents are linked to wildlife trafficking and affect it
• to reveal strategies introduced by international agencies and governments to address illicit wildlife trafficking
• to reveal the major themes covered by policy documents and existing agreements
• to conclude about the relevance of current goals and their clarity.

The thematic analysis of the specific dataset was performed to meet the objectives and answer the research questions. The documents selected for the investigation included eight important declarations, regulations, policies, and resolutions critical for the further evolution of the aviation sphere and its ability to struggle against wildlife trafficking.

The thematic analysis was conducted using certain codes and themes linked to the problem under investigation.

The thematic analysis showed that the efforts of regulatory agencies and governments are focused on creating the basis for international cooperation. For this reason, numerous declarations such as Buckingham Palace or CITES are signed by nations which joined the existing programmes and activities (Arroyo-Quiroz and Wyatt, 2019). At the same time, the results show that significant priorities include training personnel to increase individuals’ awareness regarding the current problem and guarantee they understand its scope and importance. Moreover, new mechanisms of reporting should be introduced and employed by specialists to reduce the risk of illicit wildlife trafficking.

Altogether, the study evidences the critical importance of wildlife trafficking in modern civil aviation. There are several policies and agreements accepted by numerous states to ensure they cooperate and move forward to achieve success and reduce the number of animals replaced illegally. The documents include the Buckingham Palace Declaration, UN Resolutions, CITES, ICAO Facilitation Panel, and ACI Resolution. These papers ensure a new framework is established. At the same time, it is vital to continue the investigation in the given sphere because of its critical nature and numerous challenges that still affect airlines and help illicit traffickers to transport endangered species. For this reason, the proposed study can be used as the basis for future investigation in the same sphere.

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Buckingham Palace Declaration (UfW, 2016)

United for Wildlife Transport Taskforce Buckingham Palace Declaration Preamble

We, signatories to the United for Wildlife Transport Taskforce Buckingham Palace Declaration and the members of the United for Wildlife International Taskforce on the transportation of illegal wildlife products, recognising the devastating impact of illegal wildlife trade, agree to the Commitments set out below, as they apply to our industry or organisation. We, as signatories to the Declaration, will not knowingly facilitate or tolerate the carriage of wildlife products, where trade in those products is contrary to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wildlife Fauna and Flora (CITES), and as such is illegal under international and national laws. We agree to implement the Commitments relating to our own industry sector or organisational mandate, as part of our intention to tackle this issue and bring an end to illegal wildlife trade. We agree to evaluate the impact of the Commitments regularly, to assess what has worked and identify and address any challenges. We ask the entire transport industry to follow our lead and help bring an end to the illegal trade in wildlife by signing this Declaration and supporting implementation of the Commitments.

Commitments

Expression and Demonstration of Agreement to Tackle the Illegal Wildlife Trade

1. Adopt or encourage the adoption of a zero tolerance policy regarding illegal wildlife trade.
2. Increase passenger, customer, client, and staff awareness about the nature, scale, and consequences of illegal wildlife trade.
3. Promote the Declaration and its Commitments across the entire transport sector and encourage all in the sector to sign up to the Declaration.

Information Sharing and Detection

1. Develop mechanisms to enable the transport sector to receive timely information about the transport of suspected illegal wildlife and their products, including methods of transportation, key routes, ports and other locations.
2. Enhance data systems, including due diligence and risk assessment, to allow the transport sector and/or enforcement agencies to screen data and/or cargo, to identify potential shipments of suspected illegal wildlife and their products.
3. Identify and promote systems for staff and the public to report suspicions in relation to the transportation of illegal wildlife and their products.
4. Improve the training of staff within the transport sector to enable them to detect, identify and report suspected illegal wildlife trade, and acknowledge staff who champion this cause.

Practical Measures to Stop the Transportation of Illegal Wildlife Products

1. Develop a secure, harmonised system for passing information about suspected illegal wildlife trade from the transport sector to relevant customs and law enforcement authorities, where permitted by law.
2. Notify relevant law enforcement authorities of cargoes suspected of containing illegal wildlife and their products and, where able, refuse to accept or ship such cargoes.
3. Establish a cross-disciplinary team working with local customs and law enforcement authorities to develop a system of best practice for combatting illegal wildlife trade in key ports.

New Mechanisms Tackling Illegal Wildlife Trade

1. Support the development of mechanisms by the World Customs Organization and national customs authorities to aid the detection and prevention of trade in illegal wildlife and their products.

Sustainable development of the aviation ecosystem (ACI, 2021)

The Thirty-first ACI World Annual General Assembly:

Recognizing the positive and necessary contribution of aviation and airports as a major contributor to global economic prosperity, a significant provider to social benefits, allowing for enhanced living conditions of people all over the globe and playing a critical role in the sustainable development of economies and populations globally;

Recognizing the need to reduce the sector’s negative impact on the environment and to promote restorative development by reducing and proactively addressing risks, and increasing its social and economic benefits by properly balancing them with the environmental aspects of the business;

Noting the unprecedented impact on the entire aviation industry and prolonged recovery from the Covid-19 Pandemic that has challenged the industry’s resilience, including its economic sustainability under the current business models and regulatory environment;

Noting the importance of collaboration among aviation and non-aviation stakeholders as means to prevent, prepare and respond to future crises, considering both the variations and interdependence of risks, such as climate change, global socio-political events or another pandemic and to increase resilience, and promote sustainable development;

Noting the differences in economic models and revenue streams the individual sectors of the aviation ecosystem have, as well as the variations in economic support different sectors have obtained throughout the Covid-19 Pandemic;

Recognizing the importance of each individual sector of activity within the aviation system as interdependent actors of the overall aviation ecosystem which must ensure ongoing collaboration, exchange and mutual support to achieve long term sustainability goals and system resilience;

Reaffirming the member airport’s engagement in embracing technology and innovation, including accommodating new entrants to the aviation market and innovative propulsion methodologies, to promote a positive transformation of the aviation ecosystem and improve the services they provide;

Reaffirming the member airport’s commitment to: reach Net Zero carbon emissions by 2050, to strive to meet public expectations and societal values, and to protect biodiversity and prevent wildlife trafficking;

Recognizing that many airport operators have already set their decarbonization roadmaps and started to implement them, including several which have anticipated their Net Zero commitments to 2030, but that support is needed for the global membership to be able to develop and implement their decarbonization strategies and action plans;

Recognizing that effective action to achieve sustainable development goals will depend on the ability of airports to incorporate sustainability at the core of their corporate strategies. Multi-sector collaboration will play a critical role in ensuring a resilient aviation ecosystem capable of achieving global sustainability goals;

Recognizing the need for transparency as airports plan and implement their Net Zero commitments and that ACI should play a role in facilitating this progress, including the promotion and sharing of best practices among members, development of mentorship programmes, assistance and capacity building initiatives at the local and global level, and by the development of the Voluntary Airport Decarbonization Action Plans initiative; and,

Reaffirming ACI World Resolution 3/2016 in which member airports committed to join the effort to stop the transportation of illegal wildlife trafficking, and that ACI has recently completed a partnership with USAID ROUTES to increase awareness about, to encourage, and provide the tools for airports to take action to reduce wildlife trafficking.

Resolves that the General Assembly:

1. Calls upon governments and non-aviation stakeholders to support and work in collaboration with the airport industry to achieve collective social, environmental and economic sustainable development goals;
2. Calls upon all industry stakeholders to work collaboratively, in mutual support with the objective of ensuring the ongoing recovery of the aviation ecosystem and providing a strong basis for the longer-term resilience and sustainability of the industry;
3. Call upon member airports, as part of their commitment to Net Zero 2050, to work in collaboration with ACI and other stakeholders to develop and submit their Voluntary Airport Decarbonization Action Plans;
4. Encourages and supports member airports as they play a leadership role in the promotion of sustainable development and work with ACI and other stakeholders to facilitate the continued progress on this collective journey;
5. Encourages and supports member airports in working to promote and protect a healthy, biodiverse and a balanced ecosystem, including through a commitment to zero tolerance of wildlife trafficking.

CITES Strategic Vision (CITES, 2020)

Introduction The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) was concluded on 3 March 1973 and entered into force on 1 July 1975. CITES provides a global framework for the legal and sustainable international trade in CITES-listed species. Today, CITES regulates trade in more than 36 000 species of wild animals and plants. CITES is widely regarded as one of the most important international conservation instruments. Since 1975, the Conference of the Parties has adapted this framework to changing circumstances and, through the adoption of Resolutions and Decisions, has demonstrated an ability to construct practical solutions to increasingly complex wildlife trade and conservation challenges.

The Conference of the Parties adopted its first strategic plan, the Strategic Vision through 2005, and an Action Plan at its 11th meeting (Gigiri, 2000). These were subsequently extended until the end of 2007 at the 13th meeting of the Conference of the Parties (Bangkok, 2004).

Initially, at its 14th meeting (The Hague, 2007), and with amendments agreed at its 16th (Bangkok, 2013) and 17th (Johannesburg, 2016) meetings, the Conference of the Parties agreed a new Strategic Vision for CITES for the period 2008-2020. The agreed amendments describe the contribution of CITES’ activities to the achievement of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and the relevant Aichi Biodiversity Targets adopted by the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, as well as to the achievement of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, and its Goals and targets relevant to CITES.

With this new Strategic Vision, the Conference of the Parties to CITES outlines the Convention’s direction for the 2021-2030 timeframe in fulfilment of its mandate. It is additionally recognized that Parties’ efforts to implement the Convention may also provide benefit to, and draw strength from, efforts being undertaken in other fora, and in this sense highlights the linkages between CITES and, inter alia, the processes and actions listed below:

• the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its Sustainable Development Goals and targets relevant to CITES, including those for terrestrial and marine wildlife;
• the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and the post-2020 Biodiversity Framework being developed by Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity;
• the findings of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services; and
• relevant resolutions of the United Nations General Assembly.

The CITES Strategic Vision provides a framework for the future development of the CITES Resolutions and Decisions and provides guidance on goals and objectives to be achieved. The Conference of the Parties, through its Resolutions and Decisions, will determine actions to be taken by Parties, the Committees or the Secretariat, as appropriate. The Strategic Vision also serves the Parties as a tool for the prioritization of activities, and decisions on how best to fund them, in light of the need for the efficient and transparent use of resources.

Vision Statement

By 2030, all international trade in wild fauna and flora is legal and sustainable, consistent with the longterm conservation of species, and thereby contributing to halting biodiversity loss, to ensuring its sustainable use, and to achieving the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

Values

Parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora act in the best interest of the conservation of species, working to ensure their use is legal and sustainable, and aim to adopt measures proportionate to the anticipated risks to the species under consideration. In doing so, Parties have a shared commitment to fairness, impartiality, geographic and gender balance, and to transparency. Resolution Conf. 18.3 – 4

Purpose

The twofold purpose of the Strategic Vision is:

• as a priority, to improve the working of the Convention, so that international trade1 in wild fauna and flora is conducted legally at sustainable levels and supports the conservation of listed species; and
• to ensure that CITES policy developments are mutually supportive of international environmental priorities and take into account new international initiatives, consistent with the terms of the Convention.

Strategic Goals

In order to achieve this purpose, five broad goals, of equal priority, have been identified as the key components of the Strategic Vision:

• Goal 1: Trade in CITES-listed species is conducted in full compliance with the Convention in order to achieve their conservation and sustainable use;
• Goal 2: Parties’ decisions are supported by the best available science and information;
• Goal 3: Parties (individually and collectively) have the tools, resources and capacity to effectively implement and enforce the Convention, contributing to the conservation, sustainable use and the reduction of illegal trade in CITES-listed wildlife species;
• Goal 4: CITES policy development also contributes to and learns from international efforts to achieve sustainable development; and
• Goal 5: Delivery of the CITES Strategic Vision is improved through collaboration.

The goals aim at consolidating the existing strengths of CITES, ensuring the implementation of CITES and the achievement of its overarching aim as a priority, and further improving the relationship with complementary international efforts to achieve conservation and sustainable development, including with other relevant multilateral environmental agreements and related conventions, agreements and associations.

Goal 1 recognizes that only through ensuring compliance with CITES provisions will the aim of the Convention be achieved. This goal speaks to the performance of the Convention and how effectively it is resulting in the conservation and sustainable use of CITES-listed wild fauna and flora. It recognizes that the effectiveness of the Convention at achieving its Vision depends upon its full implementation by all Parties. Full implementation includes commitment by each Party to the Convention and its principles. Equally important is the commitment of each Party to embody the international co-operation essential for the success of the Convention. Actions to achieve the intent of this goal might include developing innovative tools for the identification and traceability of species in trade, the making of non-detriment findings, determining legal acquisition and for the sharing of trade information. It requires Parties to develop provisions for trade that are proportionate and that can be implemented without undue complexity.

In Goal 2, CITES Parties recognize the need to generate and have access to the best available science and information for supporting their trade risk assessments, listing proposals, permitting and enforcement decisions. Among others, information to support the making of non-detriment findings, determining legal acquisition and evaluating the care of live specimens might be found in the scientific literature, population surveys, provenance records or professional literature and standards. Information might equally be held by national and international experts, including the relevant knowledge of indigenous peoples and local communities. Further, in cases of uncertainty, either as to the status of a species, or the impact of trade, Parties commit to act in the best interest of the conservation of the species and aim to adopt measures proportionate to the anticipated risks to the species under consideration.

Goal 3 recognizes the necessity of appropriately supporting Parties to effectively implement the Convention. It is the CITES Parties that are responsible for ensuring enforcement and consistent application of the Convention’s obligations, and thus ultimately responsible for how effectively the Convention achieves its Vision. Practically, in addition to appropriate resources allocation to each Party internally, full implementation of CITES also demands the provision of timely capacity building and of 1 It should be noted that all references to ‘trade’ in the Strategic Vision refer to trade as defined in Article I of the Convention. Resolution Conf. 18.3 – 5 adequate financial resources. Underlying this goal is the recognition that effective enforcement is key to combatting the threat illegal and unsustainable trade poses to wild flora and fauna. Parties recognize the important role of CITES in global efforts to combat poaching and trafficking of species (including by increasing the capacity of indigenous peoples and local communities to pursue sustainable livelihood opportunities), to address both demand and supply of illegal wildlife products, and to tackle organized crime and poor governance, including corruption.

Goal 4 explicitly recognizes the important contribution of CITES to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which seeks to achieve sustainable development through balancing the economic, social and environmental dimensions. It is a widely accepted and broad-scope international process, and it contains several goals and targets that are directly or indirectly dependent on effective implementation of CITES, including supporting legal, sustainable wildlife trade, and tackling both illegal and unsustainable wildlife trade. CITES Parties understand and aim to communicate the important contribution the effective implementation of the Convention has in achieving the global Sustainable Development Goals. CITES Parties equally recognize the need to draw lessons from the global debate on sustainable development, in recognition that CITES stands at the intersection between trade, the environment and development.

Finally, Goal 5 aims to use existing or new partnerships or alliances to help achieve its Strategic Vision. This could include work within existing partnerships, such as other conventions, international agreements and organizations, governments, non-governmental or intergovernmental organizations or others, as well as partnerships at the national or regional level. It also reflects work to develop new partnerships or alliances, as relevant and in order to advance the aim of the Convention, and mainstream CITES implementation with relevant sectors and stakeholders. The aim of such collaborations is mutually supportive, where CITES Parties can also help advance other international goals or targets by simultaneously advancing the achievement of CITES goals.

Within the framework provided by each of these goals, this Strategic Vision identifies a number of objectives to be achieved.

CITES Strategic Objectives

To ensure that international wildlife trade does not threaten the survival of wild species of flora and fauna:

Goal 1: Trade In Cites-Listed Species Is Conducted in Full Compliance With the Convention in Order to Achieve Their Conservation and Sustainable Use.

• Objective 1.1: Parties comply with their obligations under the Convention through the adoption and implementation of appropriate legislation, policies, and procedures.
• Objective 1.2: Parties have established CITES Management and Scientific Authorities and enforcement focal points that effectively carry out the duties required of them under the Convention and relevant Resolutions.
• Objective 1.3: Implementation of the Convention at the national level is consistent with Resolutions and Decisions adopted by the Conference of the Parties.
• Objective 1.4: The Appendices correctly reflect the conservation status and needs of species.
• Objective 1.5: Parties improve the conservation status of CITES-listed specimens, put in place national conservation actions, support their sustainable use and promote cooperation in managing shared wildlife resources.

Goal 2: Parties’ Decisions Are Supported by the Best Available Science and Information.

• Objective 2.1: Parties’ non-detriment findings are based on best available scientific information and their determination of legal acquisition is based on the best available technical and legal information.
• Objective 2.2: Parties cooperate in sharing information and tools relevant to the implementation of CITES.
• Objective 2.3: Parties have sufficient information to enforce the Convention. Resolution Conf. 18.3 – 6
• Objective 2.4: Parties have sufficient information to make listing decisions that are reflective of species conservation needs.
• Objective 2.5: Information gaps and needs for key species are identified and addressed.

Goal 3: Parties (Individually and Collectively) Have the Tools, Resources and Capacity to Effectively Implement and Enforce the Convention, Contributing to Conservation, Sustainable Use and the Reduction of Illegal Trade In Cites-Listed Wildlife Species.

• Objective 3.1: Parties have in place administrative procedures that are transparent, practical, coherent and user-friendly, and reduce unnecessary administrative burdens.
• Objective 3.2: Parties and the Secretariat develop, adopt and implement adequate capacity-building programmes.
• Objective 3.3: Sufficient resources are available at the national and international levels to support necessary capacity-building programmes and ensure compliance with and full implementation and enforcement of the Convention.
• Objective 3.4: Parties recognize illegal trade in wildlife as serious crime and have adequate systems in place to detect and deter it.
• Objective 3.5: Parties work collaboratively across range, transit and destination states, to address entire illegal trade chains, including through strategies to reduce both the supply of and demand for illegal products, in order for trade to be legal and sustainable.
• Objective 3.6: Parties take measures to prohibit, prevent, detect and sanction corruption.
• Objective 3.7: Investments in building capacity of CITES are prioritized, coordinated, and their success monitored to ensure stepwise improvement through time.
• Objective 3.8: Parties take full advantage of emerging technological developments to improve the effective implementation and enforcement of the Convention.

Goal 4: Cites Policy Development Also Contributes to and Learns From International Efforts to Achieve Sustainable Development

• Objective 4.1: Parties support sustainable wildlife trade policies, especially those that increase the capacity of Indigenous peoples and local communities to pursue livelihoods.
• Objective 4.2: The importance of achieving CITES’ aim as a contribution to achieving the relevant Sustainable Development Goals, as well as the post-2020 global biodiversity framework, is recognized.
• Objective 4.3: Awareness of the role, purpose and achievements of CITES is increased globally.
• Objective 4.4: CITES Parties are informed of international actions for sustainable development that may have a bearing on achieving the goal of CITES.

Goal 5: Delivery of the Cites Strategic Vision Is Improved Through Collaboration.

• Objective 5.1: Parties and the Secretariat support and enhance existing cooperative partnerships in order to achieve their identified objectives.
• Objective 5.2: Parties encourage the formation of new, innovative and mutually sustainable alliances between CITES and relevant international partners, where appropriate to advance CITES’ objective and mainstream conservation and of sustainable use of biodiversity.
• Objective 5.3: Cooperation between CITES and international financial mechanisms and other related institutions is enhanced in order to support activities that contribute to CITES implementation and enforcement.

Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 11 September 2017 (United Nations General Assembly, 2017)

71/326. Tackling illicit trafficking in wildlife.

The General Assembly,

Reaffirming the intrinsic value of biological diversity and its various contributions to sustainable development and human well-being, and recognizing that wild fauna and flora in their many beautiful and varied forms are an irreplaceable part of the natural systems of the Earth which must be protected for this generation and the generations to come,

Remaining concerned, therefore, about the increasing scale of poaching and illegal trade in wildlife and wildlife products and its adverse economic, social and environmental impacts,

Expressing serious concern over the extraordinarily detrimental levels of rhinoceros poaching and the alarmingly high levels of killings of elephants in Africa, as well as the illegal trade in other protected wildlife species, including but not limited to reptiles, tortoises, marine and freshwater turtles, sharks, ornamental fish, pangolins, great apes, parrots, raptors, the helmeted hornbill and big cats, which threaten those species with local extinction and, in some cases, with global extinction,

Underlining the need to take measures to prevent illegal timber harvesting, which leads to the decimation of rare timber species, in particular of rosewood, agarwood and sandalwood,

Recognizing that illicit trafficking in wildlife contributes to damage to ecosystems and rural livelihoods, including those based on ecotourism, undermines good governance and the rule of law and, in some cases, threatens national stability and requires enhanced transnational and regional cooperation and coordination in response,

Emphasizing that the protection of wildlife must be part of a comprehensive approach to achieving poverty eradication, food security, sustainable development, including the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, economic growth, social well-being and sustainable livelihoods,

Reaffirming its call for holistic and integrated approaches to sustainable development that will guide humanity to live in harmony with nature and lead to efforts to restore the health and integrity of the Earth’s ecosystem, which will contribute the creation of a shared future based upon our common humanity

Recognizing with concern the growth in online trade and cybercrime in the context of illegal trade in wildlife and wildlife products, which require innovative strategies and increased intergovernmental cooperation, as appropriate,

Concerned about the use of forged or illegally issued permits and certificates or the fraudulent use of authentic permits and certificates in order to misuse domestic legal markets to mask trade in illegally obtained wildlife or wildlife products, or to launder such illegally obtained wildlife or wildlife products,

Recognizing the legal framework provided by and the important role of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora 1 as the primary mechanism for regulating international trade in species of wild fauna and flora listed in its appendices, and in this regard welcoming the relevant resolutions and decisions adopted at the seventeenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention, held in Johannesburg, South Africa, from 24 September to 5 October 2016,

Recognizing also the importance of other multilateral environmental agreements, including the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals,2 the Convention on Biological Diversity, 3 the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage 4 and the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat, 5

Reaffirming its resolutions 69/314 of 30 July 2015 and 70/301 of 9 September 2016 on tackling illicit trafficking in wildlife,

Reaffirming also its resolution 70/1 of 25 September 2015, entitled “Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”, by which it adopted a comprehensive, far-reaching and people-centred set of universal and transformative Sustainable Development Goals and targets,

Recalling Economic and Social Council resolution 2013/40 of 25 July 2013 on crime prevention and criminal justice responses to illicit trafficking in protected species of wild fauna and flora, in which the Council encouraged Member States to make illicit trafficking in protected species of wild fauna and flora involving organized criminal groups a serious crime,

Reaffirming that the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime 6 and the United Nations Convention against Corruption 7 constitute effective tools and an important part of the legal framework for international cooperation in fighting illicit trafficking in endangered species of wild fauna and flora,

Bearing in mind that the illicit trade in small arms and light weapons could be linked to illicit trafficking in wildlife, which may pose a serious threat to national and regional stability in some parts of Africa

Recognizing the important work of the International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime, a collaborative effort of the secretariat of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, the International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL), the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, the World Bank and the World Customs Organization, by, inter alia, providing technical assistance to Member States,

Welcoming resolution 2/14 of 27 May 2016 of the United Nations Environment Assembly of the United Nations Environment Programme, on the illegal trade in wildlife and wildlife products,

Welcoming also the efforts of and cooperation between Member States, intergovernmental organizations and non-governmental organizations, as well as activities of United Nations agencies and other entities, aimed at preventing and fighting illicit trafficking in wildlife, and in this regard taking note of the Paris Declaration of 2013, the London Declaration of 2014, the Kasane Statement of 2015, the Brazzaville Declaration of 2015 and the Hanoi Statement of 2016,

Recalling its resolution 68/205 of 20 December 2013, in which it proclaimed 3 March, the day of the adoption of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, as World Wildlife Day, and welcoming the international observance of the Day since 2014 in order to celeb rate and raise awareness of the world’s wild fauna and flora,

Welcoming the high-level thematic discussion on the global observance of World Wildlife Day, held on 3 March 2017, which focused on tackling illicit trafficking in wildlife and protecting wild fauna and flora, as well as on the role of youth in protecting wildlife,

Recalling its resolution 71/206 of 19 December 2016 on follow-up to the Thirteenth United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice and preparations for the Fourteenth United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, and taking note of the importance of the Doha Declaration on Integrating Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice into the Wider United Nations Agenda to Address Social and Economic Challenges and to Promote the Rule of Law at the National and International Levels, and Public Participation, adopted by the Thirteenth Congress,

Reaffirming the role of the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice as the principal policymaking body of the United Nations for crime prevention and criminal justice matters,

Taking note of the ministerial declaration of the high-level segment of the eleventh session of the United Nations Forum on Forests on the international arrangement on “The forests we want: beyond 2015” 10 and of the resolution on the international arrangement on forests beyond 2015, 11 adopted by the Forum at its eleventh session,

Taking note also of the World Wildlife Crime Report: Trafficking in protected species, prepared by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime in 2016,12:

1. Stresses its determination to implement fully and without delay the commitments undertaken in its resolutions 69/314 and 70/301;
2. Recognizes the economic, social and environmental impacts of illicit trafficking in wildlife, where firm and strengthened action needs to be taken on both the supply and the demand sides, and re-emphasizes the importance, in this regard, of effective international cooperation among Member States, relevant multilateral environmental agreements and international organizations;
3. Encourages Member States to adopt effective measures to prevent and counter the serious problem of crimes that have an impact on the environment, such as illicit trafficking in wildlife and wildlife products, including fauna and flora as protected by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora,1 and poaching;
4. Urges Member States to take decisive steps at the national level to prevent, combat and eradicate the illegal trade in wildlife, on both the supply and the demand sides, including by strengthening their legislation and regulations necessary for the prevention, investigation, prosecution and appropriate punishment of such illegal trade, as well as by strengthening enforcement and criminal justice responses, and to increase the exchange of information and knowledge among national authorities as well as among Member States and international crime authorities, in accordance with national legislation and international law, acknowledging that the International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime can provide valuable technical assistance in this regard, including through supporting Member States in the implementation of the Wildlife and Forest Crime Analytic Toolkit, which is aimed at strengthening, where appropriate, the capacity of relevant law enforcement authorities and judiciaries in investigating, prosecuting and adjudicating wildlife-related offences;
5. Calls upon Member States to make illicit trafficking in protected species of wild fauna and flora a serious crime, in accordance with their national legislation and as defined in article 2 (b) and article 3, paragraph 1 (b), of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, 6 in order to ensure that, where the offence is transnational in nature and involves an organized criminal group, effective international cooperation can be afforded under the Convention to prevent and combat transnational organized crime;
6. Encourages Member States to utilize article II, paragraph 3, of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora by listing in its appendix III protected species in their jurisdiction that may become threatened as a result of international trade, and urges Member States to provide assistance in controlling the trade in those species protected under the Convention, including those listed in appendix III;
7. Calls upon Member States to review and amend national legislation, as necessary and appropriate, so that offences connected to the illegal trade in wildlife are treated as predicate offences, as defined in the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, for the purposes of domestic money – laundering offences and are actionable under domestic proceeds of crime legislation, and so that assets linked to illegal trade in wildlife and wildlife products can be seized, confiscated and disposed of;
8. Encourages Member States to make use, to the greatest extent possible, of legal instruments available at the national level to tackle illicit trafficking in wildlife, including through legislation related to money-laundering, corruption, fraud, racketeering and financial crime; Tackling illicit trafficking in wildlife A/RES/71/326 5/7
9. Also encourages Member States to harmonize their judicial, legal and administrative regulations to support the exchange of evidence regarding and criminal prosecution of illicit trafficking in wildlife, as well as to establish nationallevel inter-agency wildlife crime task forces and facilitate the exchange of evidence between the different government agencies, to the extent consistent with national legislation;
10. Further encourages Member States to enhance their enforcement efforts, including through recording and monitoring both seizures and successful prosecutions, in order to more effectively counter and deter the illegal trade in wildlife;
11. Urges Member States to engage actively in efforts to raise awareness about and address the problems and risks associated with the supply and transit of and demand for illegal wildlife products, including by improving cooperation with all relevant stakeholders, engaging consumer groups and tackling the drivers of demand, and to more effectively reduce the demand, including by using targeted and evidence-based strategies in order to influence consumer behaviour and create greater awareness of laws prohibiting illegal trade in wildlife and associa ted penalties;
12. Invites Member States to enhance the ability of developing countries to tackle illicit trafficking in wildlife, and in particular to enhance their implementation of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, by, inter alia, providing financial or technical assistance, supporting efforts to access funding through the Global Environment Facility and providing financial and in-kind resources for capacity-building activities required in this regard, including in the implementation of the resolutions and decisions adopted at the seventeenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention;
13. Encourages Member States to promote sustainable development in its three dimensions in an innovative, coordinated, environmentally sound, open and shared manner, which requires a comprehensive approach to protect wild fauna and flora and to combat, with determination, the illegal trade in wildlife and wildlife products;
14. Also encourages Member States to increase the capacity of local communities to pursue sustainable livelihood opportunities, including from their local wildlife resources, and eradicate poverty, by promoting, inter alia, innovative partnerships for conserving wildlife through shared management responsibilities, including community conservancies, public-private partnerships, sustainable tourism, revenue-sharing agreements and other income sources, such as sustainable agriculture;
15. Further encourages Member States to integrate measures to address illegal trade in wildlife into development policy and planning and the programming of development cooperation activities, and to further raise public awareness among individuals and communities to live sustainably in a world in which wildlife and other living species are protected;
16. Calls upon Member States to initiate or strengthen collaborative partnerships among local, regional, national and international development and conservation agencies so as to enhance support for community-led wildlife conservation and to promote the retention of benefits by local communities for the conservation and sustainable management of wildlife; A/RES/71/326 Tackling illicit trafficking in wildlife 6/7
17. Strongly encourages Member States to enhance their support, including through transnational and regional cooperation, for the development of sustainable and, as appropriate, alternative livelihoods for communities affected by illicit trafficking in wildlife and its adverse impacts, with the full engagement of the communities in and adjacent to wildlife habitats as active partners in conservation and sustainable use, enhancing the rights and capacity of the members of such communities to manage and benefit from wildlife and wilderness;
18. Also strongly encourages Member States to participate in global, regional and national donor coordination and knowledge-sharing efforts to enhance understanding and mobilization of bilateral, multilateral and private investments to prevent and combat illegal trade in wildlife in order to collectively maximize investment effectiveness and engage new partners;
19. Urges Member States that have not yet done so to consider taking measures to ratify or accede to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the United Nations Convention against Corruption,7 and calls upon parties to take appropriate measures to ensure the effective implementation of their obligations under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora and other relevant multilateral agreements, including by applying the agreed international guidelines established by the latter Convention for the storage, stockpiling and disposal of illicit wildlife products and contraband, as well as to consider ways to share information with one another on best practices to tackle illicit trafficking in wildlife in line with those instruments;
20. Calls upon Member States to prohibit, prevent and counter any form of corruption that facilitates illicit trafficking in wildlife and wildlife products, including by assessing and mitigating corruption risks in their technical assistance and capacity-building programmes related to wildlife, by strengthening their capacity to investigate and by prosecuting such corruption, calls upon parties to implement all relevant resolutions and decisions adopted at the seventeenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, and requests the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime to continue to support Member States in this regard, upon their request;
21. Also calls upon Member States to ensure that legal domestic markets for wildlife products are not used to mask the trade in illegal wildlife products, and in this regard urges parties to implement the decision adopted at the seventeenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora recommending that all Governments close legal domestic ivory markets, as a matter of urgency, if these markets contribute to poaching or illegal trade; 13
22. Encourages Member States to take measures making permit systems more resilient to corruption and to take advantage of modern information and communications technologies for improved control of international trade in protected species of wild fauna and flora in order to prevent the use of fraudulent documents in the international trade in protected species; _______________ 13 See resolution Conf. 10.10 (Rev. CoP17) on trade in elephant specimens. Tackling illicit trafficking in wildlife A/RES/71/326 7/7
23. Recognizes the efforts of the Group of 20 in countering corruption at both the global and the national levels, takes note with appreciation of the work at its summits held in Hangzhou, China, in 2016, and in Hamburg, Germany, in 2017, as well as its development of High-level Principles on Combatting Corruption Related to Illegal Trade in Wildlife and Wildlife Products, and urges the Group to continue to engage other States Members of the United Nations and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime in its work in an inclusive and transparent manner;
24. Also recognizes the efforts of the African Union to prevent and reduce, with a view to eliminating, the illegal exploitation of and illegal trade in wild fauna and flora in Africa in a common coordinated response;
25. Strongly encourages Member States, in line with Economic and Social Council resolution 2013/40, to cooperate at the bilateral, regional and international levels to prevent, combat and eradicate international illicit trafficking in wildlife and wildlife products through, inter alia, the use of international legal instruments such as the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the United Nations Convention against Corruption;
26. Encourages Member States, where relevant and appropriate, to enhance cooperation for the timely and cost-efficient repatriation of live illegally traded wildlife, including eggs, consistent with the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, and also, where relevant and appropriate, to enhance information-sharing among national and international authorities on the seizure of illegally traded wildlife and wildlife products in order to facilitate follow-up investigation and prosecution;
27. Calls upon United Nations organizations, within their respective mandates and in line with Economic and Social Council resolution 2013/40, to continue to support efforts by Member States to fight illicit trafficking in wildlife, such as through capacity-building and by supporting alternative livelihoods, and to improve cooperation with all relevant stakeholders in order to facilitate a holistic and comprehensive approach by the international community;
28. Requests, in this regard, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, within its mandate and resources, in line with Economic and Social Council resolution 2013/40 and in close cooperation and collaboration with Member States, to continue and to strengthen the collection of information on patterns and flows of illicit trafficking in wildlife and to report thereon biennially;
29. Requests the Secretary-General to further improve the coordination of activities undertaken by the specialized agencies, funds and programmes of the United Nations system relating to the scope of the present resolution, within their respective mandates and in line with Economic and Social Council resolution 2013/40;
30. Also requests the Secretary-General, taking into account Economic and Social Council resolution 2013/40, to report to the General Assembly at its seventythird session on the global status of illicit trafficking in wildlife, including poaching and illegal trade, and on the implementation of the present resolution, and to make proposals for possible future action, including consideration of the appointment of a special envoy to promote awareness and galvanize international action;
31. Decides to revisit the issue and the implementation of the present resolution on a biennial basis, beginning at its seventy-third session.

ICAO Facilitation panel (ICAO, 2021b)

Facilitation Panel (Falp)

TWELFTH MEETING

(13 to 23 July 2021, Virtual)

Agenda Item 3: Policy and Regulatory Issues

COLLABORATIVE APPROACH IN THE FIGHT AGAINST WILDLIFE TRAFFICKING

(Presented by Airports Council International (ACI) and International Air Transport Association (IATA))

Summary

Wildlife trafficking is a global problem. Since air transport is a frequently used method of transport for traffickers, airports and airlines are ideally positioned to assist, both through training of their own staff in recognizing and dealing with trafficking situations, as well as raising public awareness. This paper shares the efforts made by ACI, IATA and their Members and proposes the addition of a Recommended Practice to Annex 9 to ensure that appropriate reporting and coordination mechanisms are in place in Contracting States to help combat wildlife trafficking. Action by the FAL Panel: The Facilitation Panel is invited to:

1. note the efforts of the aviation industry in tackling proactively wildlife trafficking;
2. recognize the need for an integrated framework that includes coordination between different stakeholders; and
3. consider the adoption of a new Recommended Practice in Annex 9 to recommend the adoption by States of an integrated framework for the reporting of, and response to, suspected wildlife trafficking cases and sharing of information

Introduction

Wildlife trafficking includes the importing and exporting of protected species of wild animals and plants, derivatives or products thereof in contravention to international and/or domestic law. Depending on the jurisdiction, it can also include smuggling, poaching, and illegal capture or collection.

The illegal wildlife trade (IWT) excluding timber and fish, is estimated to be worth between US$7 and US$23 billion per year making it the fourth largest illegal global trade If combined with forestry crimes and Illegal fisheries, the value can go up to US$30- US$95 billion per year

The current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has created a new awareness of zoonotic diseases and the need to understand its risks The IWT has been identified as a factor that can increase the emergence and spread of zoonotic diseases. Proper sanitary controls and quarantine requirements are also at risk of being disregarded by wildlife traffickers.

Wildlife trafficking has significant environmental, social and economic consequences , hampering the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals8 such as 3,8,14,15,16 and 17: Health and well-being, decent work and economic growth, life below water, life on land, peace, justice and strong institutions, and partnerships.

The UNGA Resolution 71/326 Tackling illicit trafficking in wildlife, “Calls upon United Nations organizations, within their respective mandates (…), to continue to support efforts by Member States to fight illicit trafficking in wildlife, (…) to improve cooperation with all relevant stakeholders in order to facilitate a holistic and comprehensive approach by the international community”.

Over 180 countries have signed the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) and many governments are actively tackling the issue through the development of counter-trafficking policies. Effective collaboration and positive action from all stakeholders are needed.

Wildlife trafficking is a global problem. Air transport is a frequently used method of transport for traffickers as it efficiently connects many destinations. Airports and air transport routes provide opportunities for enforcement authorities to detect and intercept illegal wildlife. The aviation industry is thus well positioned to assist the effort to disrupt wildlife trafficking.

Industry Activities

ACI and IATA are committed to assisting in the fight. Both are signatories of the United for Wildlife (UfW) Transport Taskforce Buckingham Palace Declaration by The Royal Foundation of The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge. With over 200 signatories and over 120 transport sector companies from across the globe among them, the declaration has become a landmark action plan.

ACI and IATA are Members of the US Agency for International Development (USAID) Reducing Opportunities for Unlawful Transport of Endangered Species (ROUTES) Partnership , a key element of the concerted international response to addressing wildlife poaching and associated criminal activities worldwide. Through the partnership, ACI and IATA have developed a variety of resources available on their web sites for aviation stakeholders to use.

ACI is developing guidance to help airports meet the UfW Buckingham Palace Declaration commitments and has recently developed a handbook and an e-module specifically for airports containing possible actions, references to relevant materials and case studies. IATA has developed guidance and amended protocols and procedures including the Live Animal Regulations that lowers the risk of exploitation and has launched a wildlife certification scheme that provides independent assurance that an airline is delivering on its wildlife commitments. Many airports and airlines have joined the fight against wildlife crime.

ACI World’s commitment to the UfW Buckingham Palace Declaration and support to the ROUTES Partnership was re-affirmed in a resolution against wildlife trafficking adopted by the Twenty-sixth ACI World General Assembly in 2016. The Thirtieth ACI World General Assembly adopted in 2020 a resolution encouraging airports to support the protection of biodiversity, and thereby also help averting future pandemics. In June 2016, IATA’s 72nd Annual General Meeting adopted a Resolution on the Illegal Trade in Wildlife which provides a clear and unequivocal statement of the airlines’ position on wildlife trafficking. ACI and IATA strongly support a collaborative and comprehensive approach to better understand the risk of spill-over of emerging infections from animal to human populations and vice versa.

The issue of wildlife trafficking has been raised at previous ICAO Assemblies and Panels. In 2018, IATA submitted to the 10th Facilitation Panel an Information Paper10 on ensuring that airlines and aviation contribute to combatting the IWT. Information Papers were also presented by both IATA and ACI to the 40th Assembly, which were noted12.

Discussion

In response to the threats of wildlife trafficking, enforcement agencies focus inspections on inbound flights including the use of scanning technology, which impedes passenger and cargo clearances and contributes to space constraints in arrival terminals, impacting facilitation. Information related to the nature, scale and consequences of the illegal transport of wildlife is rarely exchanged between Contracting States, airlines and airports. This reluctance to share information undermines cooperation and inhibits aviation stakeholder engagement on this serious criminal activity.

As the nature and scale of exploitation of the air transport network by wildlife traffickers emerges, the illegal wildlife trade can undermine safety and security through coercion and intimidation of air transport and enforcement staff.

Airport and airline operators can support in the fight against wildlife trafficking in different ways. Considering the negative environmental, health, social and economic impacts on operators and the communities they serve, wildlife trafficking is often considered under operators’ sustainability umbrellas. Activities include adopting a policy, raising awareness among staff, the public and the community, as well as training and partnerships, e.g. with local or international conservational NGOs, to build expertise.

To enhance, complement and make these activities more efficient, enforcement agencies should share information and intelligence with aviation stakeholders, establish effective reporting channels, take appropriate actions and provide feedback. In turn, the aviation sector is rapidly modernizing with automation and digitization, which allows it to share more information with enforcement authorities.

In summary, while training and awareness of aviation staff are crucial, their effectiveness relies on the existence of integrated reporting, response and feedback mechanisms involving the appropriate authorities. For this reason, ACI and IATA propose the addition of a Recommended Practice to Annex 9 that encourages Contracting States to take measures to ensure that appropriate mechanisms are implemented to combat wildlife trafficking, including reporting mechanisms, relevant points of contact for airport and airline operators, appropriate enforcement response and the sharing of information. Suggested wording is set out in the Appendix.

Action by the Fal Panel

The FAL Panel is invited to:

1. note the efforts of the aviation industry in tackling proactively wildlife trafficking;
2. recognize the need for an integrated framework that includes coordination between different stakeholders; and
3. consider the adoption of a new Recommended Practice in Annex 9 to recommend the adoption by States of an integrated framework for the reporting of, and response to, suspected wildlife trafficking cases and sharing of information.

Appendix

Amend Annex 9, Chapter 8, as follows: 8.XX Recommended Practice: Contracting States should ensure that appropriate mechanisms are in place to combat wildlife trafficking including reporting channels, points of contact for exchange of information between airport operators, airline operators and Contracting States, appropriate law enforcement response and sharing of information.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES, 1983)

The Contracting States,

• Recognizing that wild fauna and flora in their many beautiful and varied forms are an irreplaceable part of the natural systems of the earth which must be protected for this and the generations to come;
• Conscious of the ever-growing value of wild fauna and flora from aesthetic, scientific, cultural, recreational and economic points of view;
• Recognizing that peoples and States are and should be the best protectors of their own wild fauna and flora;
• Recognizing, in addition, that international co-operation is essential for the protection of certain species of wild fauna and flora against over-exploitation through international trade;

Convinced of the urgency of taking appropriate measures to this end; Have agreed as follows:

Article I

For the purpose of the present Convention, unless the context otherwise requires:

• “Species” means any species, subspecies, or geographically separate population thereof;
• “Specimen” means:

  • any animal or plant, whether alive or dead;
  • in the case of an animal: for species included in Appendices I and II, any readily recognizable part or derivative thereof; and for species included in Appendix III, any readily recognizable part or derivative thereof specified in Appendix III in relation to the species; and
  • in the case of a plant: for species included in Appendix I, any readily recognizable part or derivative thereof; and for species included in Appendices II and III, any readily recognizable part or derivative thereof specified in Appendices II and III in relation to the species;
• “Trade” means export, re-export, import and introduction from the sea;
• “Re-export” means export of any specimen that has previously been imported;
• “Introduction from the sea” means transportation into a State of specimens of any species which were taken in the marine environment not under the jurisdiction of any State;
• “Scientific Authority” means a national scientific authority designated in accordance with Article IX;
• “Management Authority” means a national management authority designated in accordance with Article IX;
• “Party” means a State for which the present Convention has entered into force.

Article II: Fundamental principles

1. Appendix I shall include all species threatened with extinction which are or may be affected by trade. Trade in specimens of these species must be subject to particularly strict regulation in order not to endanger further their survival and must only be authorized in exceptional circumstances.
2. Appendix II shall include:

   1. all species which although not necessarily now threatened with extinction may become so unless trade in specimens of such species is subject to strict regulation in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival; and
   2. other species which must be subject to regulation in order that trade in specimens of certain species referred to in sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph may be brought under effective control.
3. Appendix III shall include all species which any Party identifies as being subject to regulation within its jurisdiction for the purpose of preventing or restricting exploitation, and as needing the co-operation of other Parties in the control of trade.
4. The Parties shall not allow trade in specimens of species included in Appendices I, II and III except in accordance with the provisions of the present Convention.

Article III

Regulation of trade in specimens of species included in Appendix I.

1. All trade in specimens of species included in Appendix I shall be in accordance with the provisions of this Article.
2. The export of any specimen of a species included in Appendix I shall require the prior grant and presentation of an export permit. An export permit shall only be granted when the following conditions have been met:

   1. a Scientific Authority of the State of export has advised that such export will not be detrimental to the survival of that species;
   2. a Management Authority of the State of export is satisfied that the specimen was not obtained in contravention of the laws of that State for the protection of fauna and flora;
   3. a Management Authority of the State of export is satisfied that any living specimen will be so prepared and shipped as to minimize the risk of injury, damage to health or cruel treatment; and
   4. a Management Authority of the State of export is satisfied that an import permit has been granted for the specimen.
3. The import of any specimen of a species included in Appendix I shall require the prior grant and presentation of an import permit and either an export permit or a re-export certificate. An import permit shall only be granted when the following conditions have been met:

   1. a Scientific Authority of the State of import has advised that the import will be for purposes which are not detrimental to the survival of the species involved;
   2. a Scientific Authority of the State of import is satisfied that the proposed recipient of a living specimen is suitably equipped to house and care for it; and
   3. a Management Authority of the State of import is satisfied that the specimen is not to be used for primarily commercial purposes.
4. The re-export of any specimen of a species included in Appendix I shall require the prior grant and presentation of a re-export certificate. A re-export certificate shall only be granted when the following conditions have been met:

   1. a Management Authority of the State of re-export is satisfied that the specimen was imported into that State in accordance with the provisions of the present Convention;
   2. a Management Authority of the State of re-export is satisfied that any living specimen will be so prepared and shipped as to minimize the risk of injury, damage to health or cruel treatment; and
   3. a Management Authority of the State of re-export is satisfied that an import permit has been granted for any living specimen.
5. The introduction from the sea of any specimen of a species included in Appendix I shall require the prior grant of a certificate from a Management Authority of the State of introduction. A certificate shall only be granted when the following conditions have been met:

   1. a Scientific Authority of the State of introduction advises that the introduction will not be detrimental to the survival of the species involved;
   2. a Management Authority of the State of introduction is satisfied that the proposed recipient of a living specimen is suitably equipped to house and care for it; and
   3. a Management Authority of the State of introduction is satisfied that the specimen is not to be used for primarily commercial purposes.

Article IV

Regulation of trade in specimens of species included in Appendix II.

1. All trade in specimens of species included in Appendix II shall be in accordance with the provisions of this Article.
2. The export of any specimen of a species included in Appendix II shall require the prior grant and presentation of an export permit. An export permit shall only be granted when the following conditions have been met:

   1. a Scientific Authority of the State of export has advised that such export will not be detrimental to the survival of that species;
   2. a Management Authority of the State of export is satisfied that the specimen was not obtained in contravention of the laws of that State for the protection of fauna and flora; and
   3. a Management Authority of the State of export is satisfied that any living specimen will be so prepared and shipped as to minimize the risk of injury, damage to health or cruel treatment.
3. A Scientific Authority in each Party shall monitor both the export permits granted by that State for specimens of species included in Appendix II and the actual exports of such specimens. Whenever a Scientific Authority determines that the export of specimens of any such species should be limited in order to maintain that species throughout its range at a level consistent with its role in the ecosystems in which it occurs and well above the level at which that species might become eligible for inclusion in Appendix I, the Scientific Authority shall advise the appropriate Management Authority of suitable measures to be taken to limit the grant of export permits for specimens of that species.
4. The import of any specimen of a species included in Appendix II shall require the prior presentation of either an export permit or a re-export certificate.
5. The re-export of any specimen of a species included in Appendix II shall require the prior grant and presentation of a re-export certificate. A re-export certificate shall only be granted when the following conditions have been met:

   1. a Management Authority of the State of re-export is satisfied that the specimen was imported into that State in accordance with the provisions of the present Convention; and
   2. a Management Authority of the State of re-export is satisfied that any living specimen will be so prepared and shipped as to minimize the risk of injury, damage to health or cruel treatment.
6. The introduction from the sea of any specimen of a species included in Appendix II shall require the prior grant of a certificate from a Management Authority of the State of introduction. A certificate shall only be granted when the following conditions have been met:

   1. a Scientific Authority of the State of introduction advises that the introduction will not be detrimental to the survival of the species involved; and
   2. a Management Authority of the State of introduction is satisfied that any living specimen will be so handled as to minimize the risk of injury, damage to health or cruel treatment.
7. Certificates referred to in paragraph 6 of this Article may be granted on the advice of a Scientific Authority, in consultation with other national scientific authorities or, when appropriate, international scientific authorities, in respect of periods not exceeding one year for total numbers of specimens to be introduced in such periods.

Article V

Regulation of trade in specimens of species included in Appendix III.

1. All trade in specimens of species included in Appendix III shall be in accordance with the provisions of this Article.
2. The export of any specimen of a species included in Appendix III from any State which has included that species in Appendix III shall require the prior grant and presentation of an export permit. An export permit shall only be granted when the following conditions have been met:

   1. a Management Authority of the State of export is satisfied that the specimen was not obtained in contravention of the laws of that State for the protection of fauna and flora; and
   2. a Management Authority of the State of export is satisfied that any living specimen will be so prepared and shipped as to minimize the risk of injury, damage to health or cruel treatment.
3. The import of any specimen of a species included in Appendix III shall require, except in circumstances to which paragraph 4 of this Article applies, the prior presentation of a certificate of origin and, where the import is from a State which has included that species in Appendix III, an export permit.
4. In the case of re-export, a certificate granted by the Management Authority of the State of reexport that the specimen was processed in that State or is being re-exported shall be accepted by the State of import as evidence that the provisions of the present Convention have been complied with in respect of the specimen concerned.

Article VI: Permits and certificates

1. Permits and certificates granted under the provisions of Articles III, IV, and V shall be in accordance with the provisions of this Article.
2. An export permit shall contain the information specified in the model set forth in Appendix IV, and may only be used for export within a period of six months from the date on which it was granted.
3. Each permit or certificate shall contain the title of the present Convention, the name and any identifying stamp of the Management Authority granting it and a control number assigned by the Management Authority.
4. Any copies of a permit or certificate issued by a Management Authority shall be clearly marked as copies only and no such copy may be used in place of the original, except to the extent endorsed thereon.
5. A separate permit or certificate shall be required for each consignment of specimens.
6. A Management Authority of the State of import of any specimen shall cancel and retain the export permit or re-export certificate and any corresponding import permit presented in respect of the import of that specimen.
7. Where appropriate and feasible a Management Authority may affix a mark upon any specimen to assist in identifying the specimen. For these purposes “mark” means any indelible imprint, lead seal or other suitable means of identifying a specimen, designed in such a way as to render its imitation by unauthorized persons as difficult as possible.

Article VII

Exemptions and other special provisions relating to trade.

1. The provisions of Articles III, IV and V shall not apply to the transit or transhipment of specimens through or in the territory of a Party while the specimens remain in Customs control.
2. Where a Management Authority of the State of export or re-export is satisfied that a specimen was acquired before the provisions of the present Convention applied to that specimen, the provisions of Articles III, IV and V shall not apply to that specimen where the Management Authority issues a certificate to that effect.
3. The provisions of Articles III, IV and V shall not apply to specimens that are personal or household effects. This exemption shall not apply where:

   1. in the case of specimens of a species included in Appendix I, they were acquired by the owner outside his State of usual residence, and are being imported into that State; or
   2. in the case of specimens of species included in Appendix II:

      • they were acquired by the owner outside his State of usual residence and in a State where removal from the wild occurred; (ii) they are being imported into the owner’s State of usual residence; and
      • the State where removal from the wild occurred requires the prior grant of export permits before any export of such specimens; unless a Management Authority is satisfied that the specimens were acquired before the provisions of the present Convention applied to such specimens.
4. Specimens of an animal species included in Appendix I bred in captivity for commercial purposes, or of a plant species included in Appendix I artificially propagated for commercial purposes, shall be deemed to be specimens of species included in Appendix II.
5. Where a Management Authority of the State of export is satisfied that any specimen of an animal species was bred in captivity or any specimen of a plant species was artificially propagated, or is a part of such an animal or plant or was derived therefrom, a certificate by that Management Authority to that effect shall be accepted in lieu of any of the permits or certificates required under the provisions of Article III, IV or V.
6. The provisions of Articles III, IV and V shall not apply to the non-commercial loan, donation or exchange between scientists or scientific institutions registered by a Management Authority of their State, of herbarium specimens, other preserved, dried or embedded museum specimens, and live plant material which carry a label issued or approved by a Management Authority.
7. A Management Authority of any State may waive the requirements of Articles III, IV and V and allow the movement without permits or certificates of specimens which form part of a travelling zoo, circus, menagerie, plant exhibition or other travelling exhibition provided that:

   1. the exporter or importer registers full details of such specimens with that Management Authority;
   2. the specimens are in either of the categories specified in paragraph 2 or 5 of this Article; and
   3. the Management Authority is satisfied that any living specimen will be so transported and cared for as to minimize the risk of injury, damage to health or cruel treatment.

Article VIII

Measures to be taken by the Parties.

1. The Parties shall take appropriate measures to enforce the provisions of the present Convention and to prohibit trade in specimens in violation thereof. These shall include measures:

   1. to penalize trade in, or possession of, such specimens, or both; and
   2. to provide for the confiscation or return to the State of export of such specimens.
2. In addition to the measures taken under paragraph 1 of this Article, a Party may, when it deems it necessary, provide for any method of internal reimbursement for expenses incurred as a result of the confiscation of a specimen traded in violation of the measures taken in the application of the provisions of the present Convention.
3. As far as possible, the Parties shall ensure that specimens shall pass through any formalities required for trade with a minimum of delay. To facilitate such passage, a Party may designate ports of exit and ports of entry at which specimens must be presented for clearance. The Parties shall ensure further that all living specimens, during any period of transit, holding or shipment, are properly cared for so as to minimize the risk of injury, damage to health or cruel treatment.
4. Where a living specimen is confiscated as a result of measures referred to in paragraph 1 of this Article:

   1. the specimen shall be entrusted to a Management Authority of the State of confiscation;
   2. the Management Authority shall, after consultation with the State of export, return the specimen to that State at the expense of that State, or to a rescue centre or such other place as the Management Authority deems appropriate and consistent with the purposes of the present Convention; and
   3. the Management Authority may obtain the advice of a Scientific Authority, or may, whenever it considers it desirable, consult the Secretariat in order to facilitate the decision under subparagraph (b) of this paragraph, including the choice of a rescue centre or other place.
5. A rescue centre as referred to in paragraph 4 of this Article means an institution designated by a Management Authority to look after the welfare of living specimens, particularly those that have been confiscated.
6. Each Party shall maintain records of trade in specimens of species included in Appendices I, II and III which shall cover:

   1. the names and addresses of exporters and importers; and
   2. the number and type of permits and certificates granted; the States with which such trade occurred; the numbers or quantities and types of specimens, names of species as included in Appendices I, II and III and, where applicable, the size and sex of the specimens in question.
7. Each Party shall prepare periodic reports on its implementation of the present Convention and shall transmit to the Secretariat:

   1. an annual report containing a summary of the information specified in sub-paragraph (b) of paragraph 6 of this Article; and
   2. a biennial report on legislative, regulatory and administrative measures taken to enforce the provisions of the present Convention.
8. The information referred to in paragraph 7 of this Article shall be available to the public where this is not inconsistent with the law of the Party concerned.

Article IX: Management and Scientific Authorities

1. Each Party shall designate for the purposes of the present Convention:

   1. one or more Management Authorities competent to grant permits or certificates on behalf of that Party; and
   2. one or more Scientific Authorities.
2. A State depositing an instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession shall at that time inform the Depositary Government of the name and address of the Management Authority authorized to communicate with other Parties and with the Secretariat.
3. Any changes in the designations or authorizations under the provisions of this Article shall be communicated by the Party concerned to the Secretariat for transmission to all other Parties.
4. Any Management Authority referred to in paragraph 2 of this Article shall, if so requested by the Secretariat or the Management Authority of another Party, communicate to it impression of stamps, seals or other devices used to authenticate permits or certificates.

Article X

Trade with States not party to the Convention Where export or re-export is to, or import is from, a State not a Party to the present Convention, comparable documentation issued by the competent authorities in that State which substantially conforms with the requirements of the present Convention for permits and certificates may be accepted in lieu thereof by any Party.

Article XI: Conference of the Parties

1. The Secretariat shall call a meeting of the Conference of the Parties not later than two years after the entry into force of the present Convention.
2. Thereafter the Secretariat shall convene regular meetings at least once every two years, unless the Conference decides otherwise, and extraordinary meetings at any time on the written request of at least one-third of the Parties.
3. At meetings, whether regular or extraordinary, the Parties shall review the implementation of the present Convention and may:

   1. make such provision as may be necessary to enable the Secretariat to carry out its duties, and adopt financial provisions;
   2. consider and adopt amendments to Appendices I and II in accordance with Article XV;
   3. review the progress made towards the restoration and conservation of the species included in Appendices I, II and III;
   4. receive and consider any reports presented by the Secretariat or by any Party; and
   5. where appropriate, make recommendations for improving the effectiveness of the present Convention.
4. At each regular meeting, the Parties may determine the time and venue of the next regular meeting to be held in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 2 of this Article.
5. At any meeting, the Parties may determine and adopt rules of procedure for the meeting.
6. The United Nations, its Specialized Agencies and the International Atomic Energy Agency, as well as any State not a Party to the present Convention, may be represented at meetings of the Conference by observers, who shall have the right to participate but not to vote.
7. Any body or agency technically qualified in protection, conservation or management of wild fauna and flora, in the following categories, which has informed the Secretariat of its desire to be represented at meetings of the Conference by observers, shall be admitted unless at least onethird of the Parties present object:

   1. international agencies or bodies, either governmental or non-governmental, and national governmental agencies and bodies; and
   2. national non-governmental agencies or bodies which have been approved for this purpose by the State in which they are located. Once admitted, these observers shall have the right to participate but not to vote.

Article XII: The Secretariat

1. Upon entry into force of the present Convention, a Secretariat shall be provided by the Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme. To the extent and in the manner he considers appropriate, he may be assisted by suitable inter-governmental or non-governmental international or national agencies and bodies technically qualified in protection, conservation and management of wild fauna and flora.
2. The functions of the Secretariat shall be:

   1. to arrange for and service meetings of the Parties;
   2. to perform the functions entrusted to it under the provisions of Articles XV and XVI of the present Convention;
   3. to undertake scientific and technical studies in accordance with programmes authorized by the Conference of the Parties as will contribute to the implementation of the present Convention, including studies concerning standards for appropriate preparation and shipment of living specimens and the means of identifying specimens;
   4. to study the reports of Parties and to request from Parties such further information with respect thereto as it deems necessary to ensure implementation of the present Convention;
   5. to invite the attention of the Parties to any matter pertaining to the aims of the present Convention;
   6. to publish periodically and distribute to the Parties current editions of Appendices I, II and III together with any information which will facilitate identification of specimens of species included in those Appendices;
   7. to prepare annual reports to the Parties on its work and on the implementation of the present Convention and such other reports as meetings of the Parties may request;
   8. to make recommendations for the implementation of the aims and provisions of the present Convention, including the exchange of information of a scientific or technical nature;
   9. to perform any other function as may be entrusted to it by the Parties.

Article XIII: International measures

1. When the Secretariat in the light of information received is satisfied that any species included in Appendix I or II is being affected adversely by trade in specimens of that species or that the provisions of the present Convention are not being effectively implemented, it shall communicate such information to the authorized Management Authority of the Party or Parties concerned.
2. When any Party receives a communication as indicated in paragraph 1 of this Article, it shall, as soon as possible, inform the Secretariat of any relevant facts insofar as its laws permit and, where appropriate, propose remedial action. Where the Party considers that an inquiry is desirable, such inquiry may be carried out by one or more persons expressly authorized by the Party.
3. The information provided by the Party or resulting from any inquiry as specified in paragraph 2 of this Article shall be reviewed by the next Conference of the Parties which may make whatever recommendations it deems appropriate.

Article XIV

Effect on domestic legislation and international conventions.

1. The provisions of the present Convention shall in no way affect the right of Parties to adopt:

   1. stricter domestic measures regarding the conditions for trade, taking, possession or transport of specimens of species included in Appendices I, II and III, or the complete prohibition thereof; or
   2. domestic measures restricting or prohibiting trade, taking, possession or transport of species not included in Appendix I, II or III.
2. The provisions of the present Convention shall in no way affect the provisions of any domestic measures or the obligations of Parties deriving from any treaty, convention, or international agreement relating to other aspects of trade, taking, possession or transport of specimens which is in force or subsequently may enter into force for any Party including any measure pertaining to the Customs, public health, veterinary or plant quarantine fields.
3. The provisions of the present Convention shall in no way affect the provisions of, or the obligations deriving from, any treaty, convention or international agreement concluded or which may be concluded between States creating a union or regional trade agreement establishing or maintaining a common external Customs control and removing Customs control between the 10 parties thereto insofar as they relate to trade among the States members of that union or agreement.
4. A State party to the present Convention, which is also a party to any other treaty, convention or international agreement which is in force at the time of the coming into force of the present Convention and under the provisions of which protection is afforded to marine species included in Appendix II, shall be relieved of the obligations imposed on it under the provisions of the present Convention with respect to trade in specimens of species included in Appendix II that are taken by ships registered in that State and in accordance with the provisions of such other treaty, convention or international agreement.
5. Notwithstanding the provisions of Articles III, IV and V, any export of a specimen taken in accordance with paragraph 4 of this Article shall only require a certificate from a Management Authority of the State of introduction to the effect that the specimen was taken in accordance with the provisions of the other treaty, convention or international agreement in question.
6. Nothing in the present Convention shall prejudice the codification and development of the law of the sea by the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea convened pursuant to Resolution 2750 C (XXV) of the General Assembly of the United Nations nor the present or future claims and legal views of any State concerning the law of the sea and the nature and extent of coastal and flag State jurisdiction.

Article XV: Amendments to Appendices I and II

1. The following provisions shall apply in relation to amendments to Appendices I and II at meetings of the Conference of the Parties:

   1. Any Party may propose an amendment to Appendix I or II for consideration at the next meeting. The text of the proposed amendment shall be communicated to the Secretariat at least 150 days before the meeting. The Secretariat shall consult the other Parties and interested bodies on the amendment in accordance with the provisions of subparagraphs (b) and (c) of paragraph 2 of this Article and shall communicate the response to all Parties not later than 30 days before the meeting.
   2. Amendments shall be adopted by a two-thirds majority of Parties present and voting. For these purposes “Parties present and voting” means Parties present and casting an affirmative or negative vote. Parties abstaining from voting shall not be counted among the two-thirds required for adopting an amendment.
   3. Amendments adopted at a meeting shall enter into force 90 days after that meeting for all Parties except those which make a reservation in accordance with paragraph 3 of this Article.
2. The following provisions shall apply in relation to amendments to Appendices I and II between meetings of the Conference of the Parties: (a) Any Party may propose an amendment to Appendix I or II for consideration between meetings by the postal procedures set forth in this paragraph. (b) For marine species, the Secretariat shall, upon receiving the text of the proposed amendment, immediately communicate it to the Parties. It shall also consult intergovernmental bodies having a function in relation to those species especially with a view to obtaining scientific data these bodies may be able to provide and to ensuring co-ordination with any conservation measures enforced by such bodies. The Secretariat shall communicate the views expressed and data provided by these bodies and its own findings and recommendations to the Parties as soon as possible. (c) For species other than marine species, the Secretariat shall, upon receiving the text of the proposed amendment, immediately communicate it to the Parties, and, as soon as possible thereafter, its own recommendations. (d) Any Party may, within 60 days of the date on which the Secretariat communicated its recommendations to the Parties under sub-paragraph (b) or (c) of this paragraph, transmit to the Secretariat any comments on the proposed amendment together with any relevant scientific data and information. (e) The Secretariat shall communicate the replies received together with its own recommendations to the Parties as soon as possible. (f) If no objection to the proposed amendment is received by the Secretariat within 30 days of the date the replies and recommendations were communicated under the provisions of subparagraph (e) of this paragraph, the amendment shall enter into force 90 days later for all Parties except those which make a reservation in accordance with paragraph 3 of this Article. (g) If an objection by any Party is received by the Secretariat, the proposed amendment shall be submitted to a postal vote in accordance with the provisions of sub-paragraphs (h), (i) and (j) of this paragraph. (h) The Secretariat shall notify the Parties that notification of objection has been received. (i) Unless the Secretariat receives the votes for, against or in abstention from at least one-half of the Parties within 60 days of the date of notification under sub-paragraph (h) of this paragraph, the proposed amendment shall be referred to the next meeting of the Conference for further consideration. (j) Provided that votes are received from one-half of the Parties, the amendment shall be adopted by a two-thirds majority of Parties casting an affirmative or negative vote. (k) The Secretariat shall notify all Parties of the result of the vote. (l) If the proposed amendment is adopted it shall enter into force 90 days after the date of the notification by the Secretariat of its acceptance for all Parties except those which make a reservation in accordance with paragraph 3 of this Article.
3. During the period of 90 days provided for by sub-paragraph (c) of paragraph 1 or subparagraph (l) of paragraph 2 of this Article any Party may by notification in writing to the Depositary Government make a reservation with respect to the amendment. Until such reservation is withdrawn the Party shall be treated as a State not a Party to the present Convention with respect to trade in the species concerned.

Article XVI: Appendix III and amendments thereto

1. Any Party may at any time submit to the Secretariat a list of species which it identifies as being subject to regulation within its jurisdiction for the purpose mentioned in paragraph 3 of Article II. Appendix III shall include the names of the Parties submitting the species for inclusion therein, the scientific names of the species so submitted, and any parts or derivatives of the animals or plants concerned that are specified in relation to the species for the purposes of subparagraph (b) of Article I.
2. Each list submitted under the provisions of paragraph 1 of this Article shall be communicated to the Parties by the Secretariat as soon as possible after receiving it. The list shall take effect as part of Appendix III 90 days after the date of such communication. At any time after the communication of such list, any Party may by notification in writing to the Depositary Government enter a reservation with respect to any species or any parts or derivatives, and until such reservation is withdrawn, the State shall be treated as a State not a Party to the present Convention with respect to trade in the species or part or derivative concerned.
3. A Party which has submitted a species for inclusion in Appendix III may withdraw it at any time by notification to the Secretariat which shall communicate the withdrawal to all Parties. The withdrawal shall take effect 30 days after the date of such communication.
4. Any Party submitting a list under the provisions of paragraph 1 of this Article shall submit to the Secretariat a copy of all domestic laws and regulations applicable to the protection of such species, together with any interpretations which the Party may deem appropriate or the Secretariat may request. The Party shall, for as long as the species in question is included in Appendix III, submit any amendments of such laws and regulations or any interpretations as they are adopted.

Article XVII: Amendment of the Convention

1. An extraordinary meeting of the Conference of the Parties shall be convened by the Secretariat on the written request of at least one-third of the Parties to consider and adopt amendments to the present Convention. Such amendments shall be adopted by a two-thirds majority of Parties present and voting. For these purposes “Parties present and voting” means Parties present and casting an affirmative or negative vote. Parties abstaining from voting shall not be counted among the two-thirds required for adopting an amendment.
2. The text of any proposed amendment shall be communicated by the Secretariat to all Parties at least 90 days before the meeting.
3. An amendment shall enter into force for the Parties which have accepted it 60 days after twothirds of the Parties have deposited an instrument of acceptance of the amendment with the Depositary Government. Thereafter, the amendment shall enter into force for any other Party 60 days after that Party deposits its instrument of acceptance of the amendment.

Article XVIII: Resolution of disputes

1. Any dispute which may arise between two or more Parties with respect to the interpretation or application of the provisions of the present Convention shall be subject to negotiation between the Parties involved in the dispute.
2. If the dispute can not be resolved in accordance with paragraph 1 of this Article, the Parties may, by mutual consent, submit the dispute to arbitration, in particular that of the Permanent Court of Arbitration at The Hague, and the Parties submitting the dispute shall be bound by the arbitral decision.

Article XIX: Signature

The present Convention shall be open for signature at Washington until 30th April 1973 and thereafter at Berne until 31st December 1974.

Article XX

Ratification, acceptance, approval The present Convention shall be subject to ratification, acceptance or approval. Instruments of ratification, acceptance or approval shall be deposited with the Government of the Swiss Confederation which shall be the Depositary Government.

Article XXI: Accession

1. The present Convention shall be open indefinitely for accession. Instruments of accession shall be deposited with the Depositary Government.
2. This Convention shall be open for accession by regional economic integration organizations constituted by sovereign States which have competence in respect of the negotiation, conclusion and implementation of international agreements in matters transferred to them by their Member States and covered by this Convention.
3. In their instruments of accession, such organizations shall declare the extent of their competence with respect to the matters governed by the Convention. These organizations shall also inform the Depositary Government of any substantial modification in the extent of their competence. Notifications by regional economic integration organizations concerning their competence with respect to matters governed by this Convention and modifications thereto shall be distributed to the Parties by the Depositary Government.
4. In matters within their competence, such regional economic integration organizations shall exercise the rights and fulfil the obligations which this Convention attributes to their Member States, which are Parties to the Convention. In such cases the Member States of the organizations shall not be entitled to exercise such rights individually.
5. In the fields of their competence, regional economic integration organizations shall exercise their right to vote with a number of votes equal to the number of their Member States which are Parties to the Convention. Such organizations shall not exercise their right to vote if their Member States exercise theirs, and vice versa.
6. Any reference to “Party” in the sense used in Article I (h) of this Convention to “State”/”States” or to “State Party”/”State Parties” to the Convention shall be construed as including a reference to any regional economic integration organization having competence in respect of the negotiation, conclusion and application of international agreements in matters covered by this Convention.

Article XXII: Entry into force

1. The present Convention shall enter into force 90 days after the date of deposit of the tenth instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, with the Depositary Government.
2. For each State which ratifies, accepts or approves the present Convention or accedes thereto after the deposit of the tenth instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, the present Convention shall enter into force 90 days after the deposit by such State of its instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession.

Article XXIII: Reservations

1. The provisions of the present Convention shall not be subject to general reservations. Specific reservations may be entered in accordance with the provisions of this Article and Articles XV and XVI.
2. Any State may, on depositing its instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, enter a specific reservation with regard to: (a) any species included in Appendix I, II or III; or (b) any parts or derivatives specified in relation to a species included in Appendix III.
3. Until a Party withdraws its reservation entered under the provisions of this Article, it shall be treated as a State not a Party to the present Convention with respect to trade in the particular species or parts or derivatives specified in such reservation. Article XXIV Denunciation Any Party may denounce the present Convention by written notification to the Depositary Government at any time. The denunciation shall take effect twelve months after the Depositary Government has received the notification.

Article XXV: Depositary

1. The original of the present Convention, in the Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish languages, each version being equally authentic, shall be deposited with the Depositary Government, which shall transmit certified copies thereof to all States that have signed it or deposited instruments of accession to it.
2. The Depositary Government shall inform all signatory and acceding States and the Secretariat of signatures, deposit of instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, entry into force of the present Convention, amendments thereto, entry and withdrawal of reservations and notifications of denunciation.
3. As soon as the present Convention enters into force, a certified copy thereof shall be transmitted by the Depositary Government to the Secretariat of the United Nations for registration and publication in accordance with Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations. In witness whereof the undersigned Plenipotentiaries, being duly authorized to that effect, have signed the present Convention. Done at Washington this third day of March, One Thousand Nine Hundred and Seventy-three