Introduction
Ancient societies lived and developed in ways that are both similar and strikingly different to the ones people know today. Depending on the state of development, hierarchies, government structure, climate, and many other considerations, a nation could have grown to foster a unique and specific culture of its own. Societies like the Ancient Greeks are among the most remarkable to today’s history, as their philosophy, technology, and education have laid out the principles that persist into the modern ages. It is, therefore, conducive to cultural curiosity to examine how their society operated on a day-to-day basis. To understand this topic, it is necessary to discuss two of the most vital parts of any ancient nation – food and agriculture. A look into a diet of a regular farmer, an aristocrat, or a king tells one a lot about how people lived, their surroundings, and how different they are from the present understanding. This work will attempt to look at the agriculture of Ancient Greek society, as well as their cuisine. Climate and geographic location played an utmost role in shaping how food-related fields developed in Greece. Due to a harsh and agriculturally bare environment, people could only grow a small number of crops to sustain themselves, fostering a dependency on foreign trade and a strict focus on a few key ingredients. As a part of the whole discussion, the role of both concepts on the lives of people and the development of the nation as a whole will also be considered.
The main thesis of this paper is that the present discussion cannot be maintained without considering a wide range of, at a first glance, unrelated factors. The concepts of agriculture and cuisine both have a deep connection to Greek history, culture, development, and social trends. Without understanding how Greek society developed, it is difficult to understand the intricacies of its cuisine, or fully appreciate the varied assortment of dishes that originated there. In addition, to gain the full range of insight into the agricultural conditions of the nation, seeing it in the context of geography, politics, and economy is vital. Only by discussing and knowing the wide assortment of political, economic, social, and cultural circumstances Ancient Greece existed in is it possible to properly understand its agriculture and food.
The Importance of Food and Agriculture
Life and Leisure
Agriculture was a vital part of Greek people’s lives. For the majority of the population, farming was the primary occupation, with some sources claiming that at least 80% of all Greece were working in agriculture (Cartwright, 2022 a). This meant that people had the ability to grow their own crops, and have food on the table without needing to rely on markets or imports. A large part of the domestic agricultural production was imported to other nations, in exchange for various necessary foods and/or materials. Domestic trade was also common, although much less influential on the variety of foods Greek people could enjoy (Cartwright, 2022 b). However, the process of growing crops was very labor-intensive, and often unrewarding in its nature. The poor worked on small plots of land, while the wealthy often maintained crops larger than needed to support a family. The ability of some individuals to produce more foods of a certain kind fueled local trade and gave some the ability to have more varied diets. Richer families often sold their foods at markets or traded them for products like cheese, honey, and fish. Selling their own goods meant that the Greeks, and the upper classes, in particular, were less heavily dependent on constantly working, instead using their leisure time for other activities. This privilege did not extend to slaves or the lower classes, who would struggle to afford buying large quantities of food and had to rely on growing it themselves.
The connection between working in the field and the daily life of a Greek citizen was almost unbreakable, with the poor and the wealthy spending their time growing food and tending to their land. For one to spend their day in a different manner, it was necessary for people to develop better ways of tending to crops, or have an ability to make someone work in their stead. Therefore, a specific mode of interaction between agriculture and the people was constantly maintained. Greeks have developed varied and novel techniques for farming, helping them produce better crops and spend less time on the process of growing food or other plants. Research indicates that Ancient Greeks may have used advanced agriculture techniques to combat the disadvantages of their natural soil. In particular, the process of irrigation, i.e. delivery of water to crops was developed (Krasilnikoff, 2010). Used for both large-scale and small-scale agriculture, it helped farmers get more consistent and generous harvests from their land.
Additionally, the wealthy could spend their money to get more free time, relegating the process of tending the fields to slaves. In this way, even one’s capacity to have free time was dictated by the land itself. There were many potential activities Ancient Greeks could enjoy thanks to the time saved on farming, which is important to consider as one of the products of successful agricultural development. Consistent diets and the capacity to afford meats, fish, and grain gave privileged citizens the necessary strength to take part in physically-demanding activities. Sports and competitions were especially popular, with people both watching and participating in different displays of athleticism (Daily life in Ancient Greece). Arts and culture, which are now seen as chief historical legacies of Ancient Greece, were taken up by professionals and amateurs alike. Greek cuisine and the process of making food were deeply connected with many types of art. Nowadays, people can find sculptures, paintings, and even records of people eating and cooking food. The process of food preparation was seen as intimately important and mundane at the same time, being worthy of becoming forever etched into the history of the nation. Overall, the effective development of agriculture, as well as its relegation to the lower castes helped certain groups of Greek society to enjoy their free time and develop the country from a cultural standpoint.
Imported Goods and Necessities
As mentioned previously, Greece depended heavily on trade and imports from other locations around it. Having only a limited number of crops that would grow well all around its perimeter, many necessary goods were acquired through trade. Different types of meats and cereals, including such common types as wheat, had to be bought. Spices and fish were also often acquired through trade diversifying the range of possible food choices in Greece and promoting close trade relations (Business in ancient Greece: Northeastern University). The reliance on imports was both a positive and a negative for Greeks. On one hand, the trade opened up options in terms of cuisine and occupation among the people. On the other, it also established a heavy economic and social dependency on international relations.
The State of Agriculture
In line with the previously highlighted topics, agriculture was a prominent and extremely important activity in Greece. Any person living in Ancient Greece could use the land to grow food, although the choices were limited by the climate and availability of certain types of plants. In the earlier periods of Greek development, most of the land was owned by rich families, however, this trend shifted with time into allowing all kinds of people to grow their own food. After the third century B.C., an influx of slaves also started playing a large role in the domestic farming of various crops. Slave labor allowed Greeks to grow products for sale and consumption more efficiently and cheaply. While the more wealthy derived benefits from the work of slaves, poor land-owners faced displacement instead. Many people involved in agriculture would move into cities and take up other occupations, as enslaved workers contributed to growing the necessary crops instead.
Surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea, Greece has a dry summer climate and mild winters, lending itself poorly to agriculture as a whole. Mountainous and uneven terrain left small even areas to be populated with crops, which further limited the potential range of options for the people. The rainfalls are largely unpredictable and cannot be used as a sustainable source of moisture. For that reason, only a handful of foods and plants were regularly grown. Barley, and less often, wheat, were the main cereals of the region, with the former’s considerable endurance helping to survive the dry Mediterranean seasons. Olives and grapes were also grown generously, used for both local cuisine and trade as an export (Engen, 2022). Even the crops that were comparatively resilient to Greek weather could occasionally wither, making people rely on other sources of food and trade for a time.
In addition to comparatively lackluster soil and unfavorable weather conditions, Greece used its strategic, technological, and military power to expand outward, getting access to a better variety of land. Production of foods in Greek colonies was an important and heavily-regulated process, one which allowed Ancient Greece to both economically prosper and provide its people with more food. In addition, colonization spread the Greek agricultural practices among the Mediterranean area.
How People in Greece Ate
To discuss the subject of cuisine, it is also necessary to touch on some of the food cultures of the region, as it largely informs how people enjoyed their food and the current understanding of Ancient Greek society. Generally, cooking was relegated to women, who were seen as responsible for providing meals for their families. While this meant that the major part of food preparation was done by women, a number of male cooks also existed (Choubineh, 2022). Interestingly, men who were proficient in cooking were held in higher regard than women, and their work was considered more “professional” (Choubineh, 2022). This belief was largely informed by the male-centric nature of Greek society, and the inherent misogyny associated with it.
An average mealtime in Ancient Greece proceeded in accordance with certain social traditions. First, women served food to men, who ate first. Then, women had the opportunity to eat, only after serving the men. Lastly, if the family owned any slaves, they would eat last(Kenton, 2017). Meal proceedings seemed to have been organized while taking into consideration the prestige of each social group. This way, even a simple process of eating a meal can be seen as a reflection of the larger Ancient Greek society.
Most sources agree on a specific selection of foods enjoyed by the Greek population. As with many other societies, the richer people could enjoy a more varied and interesting diet, although the differences in food selection and dishes were generally the same (Ancient greek social hierarchy: Ancient Hierarchy 2017). Bread made out of barley was a staple of any diet, always consumed both for breakfasts and dinners (Contributor et al., 2021). It could be dipped in wine to make it softer, or eaten with such side products as cheese and olives. Generally, other barley and wheat products were also created, with things like pancakes for breakfast and some forms of pastry as notable examples (Contributor et al., 2021). Additionally, dishes made from vegetables such as cabbage would be eaten as starters, combined with honey, and spices (Cook a classical feast: Nine recipes from Ancient Greece and Rome – British museum blog 2021). In terms of drink, wine dominated the early part of the day. Compared to the modern ways of making wine, however, it was heavily distilled and much less intoxicating than people might find it today. In addition, it was largely safer to consume wine than use things like water, as it allowed for a more clean drink.
For dinners, the variety of food diversified compared to the morning. In particular, animal products and more filling meals could often be enjoyed at that time, giving people the energy to work, study or enjoy their day to the fullest. Eggs, cheese, and fish were the standout examples of a good meal, being acquired through local trade or one’s own livestock (Contributor et al., 2021). During dinnertime, people drank more wine, ate olives and legumes. In general, wine was enjoyed with every meal, and even consumed by children in small amounts (Kotsiris, 2020). Vegetables and fruit were considerably varied as well, with such things as figs, asparagus, cabbage, and cucumbers being a part of the daily meal plan. One diversion between richer people and the poor came in the form of meat consumption. Since livestock was difficult to keep in the area, meat mostly comes as a product of trade or costs a considerable amount of money to get. Therefore, only the wealthy could afford having meat on the table as a regular part of the diet.
In terms of the dessert, the options were considerably limited. While in the modern ages it is expected to see a large number of various confections made using sugar, the availability of sweeteners was scarce in Ancient Greece. Sugarcane or other modes of procuring sugar were fully unavailable, with the only reliable source of sweetness being honey. Bees were kept for the purpose of collecting honey, and a number of dishes could be made with it. Baked cakes and pastries would be soaked in honey to add sweetness, and olives were drizzled with it for the same purpose (Choubineh, 2022). Nuts, combined with simple pastries, fruit, and honey could also make up simple sweets, mostly notable for their rich nutritional value (Cauchi, 2020). As for other dessert foods, cheese and figs can also be considered.
Olive oil must be noted as an important part of Ancient Greek cuisine. Currently still existing as an important cultural milestone, it has a rich history of being produced and used as both an export and a part of daily life. Generally, olive oil was extremely labor-intensive to make, requiring more than 5 kilograms of olives to produce a single liter (Hays, 2022). The olives used for the process have to be picked only during seasons of November and January, when they are most ready to be made into oil. After cleaning, they are crushed into a fine paste and put under a press (Hays, 2022). Ancient Greeks had stone presses that functioned using the power of donkeys and other animals (Hays, 2022). Before settling into the familiar golden color, olive oil remains dark green, taking its time to properly settle and become a finished product.
Conclusion
Greek cuisine and agriculture are important historical and cultural milestones for one of the most well-known civilizations in human history. It can be said that both processes exist as a product of Greek society and a concentrated representation of its values, traditions, hierarchies, and problems. In the way Greeks grew or consumed food, the people of today can see the influence of larger global trends and developments. Slavery, wealth inequality, technological development, and philosophy all played their part in the development of these fields. Due to the existence of the rich and the poor, the relationship between people and the land varied heavily depending on one’s social status. Much like the rich could afford to educate themselves and spend their leisure time watching theater plays, could they also relegate the process of growing food to the less fortunate. The capacity of certain groups of people to be exempt from heavy labor exists as both a product of existing social trends and their direct manifestation.
Soil represented one of the biggest hurdles on the Greek road of development, limiting its potential for expansion and similarly constraining the ability of Greeks to grow their own food. The practice of importing food, then, has direct parallels with Greek colonization, as both processes were used as a tool to overcome a lack of available land and resources. Traditions surrounding Ancient Greek cuisine, additionally, also have their own parallels with other parts of Greek tradition. Most notably, the rituals of food preparation and consumption sought to reinforce existing social trends and maintain a clear hierarchy of power. Greek women were historically considered to be in lesser regard than men, which found a reflection in the process of eating food. As discussed previously, women in Greece often ate after men, which reflected their inferior and secondary position in the eyes of society.
In addition to having a complex relationship with social trends, agriculture and cuisine are both vital parts of any country’s development. Without growing food, a civilization is unable to grow, flourish or maintain its population. Understanding what the people of the Ancient Greek society consumed as a part of their regular diet provides a clear link between the past and the present. By relating to the traditions, customs, and rituals of one’s ancestry, they can be more appreciative and understanding of even the most mundane aspects of the human experience. The task of eating a meal becomes that much more engaging, profound, and insightful once it is seen through the lens of history.
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