Understand the key features of a sociological approach to religion and belief
Beliefs constitute the backbone of any community. Indeed, “societies were founded, cohere, develop, degenerate and die based on their belief systems” (Usó-Doménech and Nescolarde-Selva, 2016, p. 147). These systems allow people to comprehend the surrounding world and provide reality with a specific meaning. Hence, religion and belief are essential sociological issues, which require careful consideration. The study of these phenomena is crucial for understanding the peculiarities of the society, its background, current context, and further tendencies of development.
A sociological approach to religion and belief seeks to find out the social foundation for these phenomena. According to this approach, religion is an inherently social concept, derived from a person’s life in society. In sociology, researchers aspire to determine what makes people consider a specific system of practices and beliefs as sacred or divine. Furthermore, the differences in religious beliefs in various cultural groups is another significant focus of interest. As one can observe, sociologists examine the underlying social nature of religion and its role in society rather than seek to answer the question as to God’s existence. There are different approaches to the sociological definition of religion. For instance, according to the substantive explanation, religion is a belief in a supernatural power, unable to be scientifically explained. By contrast, the functional interpretation defines religion by its functions in society. There is also the social constructionist definition, which postulates that it is impossible to provide a universal explanation for religion since there are too many different types of it (Laluddin, 2016). This approach primarily focuses on the process in which a set of beliefs transform into a religion.
Consider the key characteristics of religion and recognize alternative belief systems
The key characteristics of religion constitute a basis for this phenomenon. These cornerstones include beliefs, believers, ethical teaching, and rituals (Usó-Doménech and Nescolarde-Selva, 2016). Another crucial feature is the lack of rationality. Instead of rational reasoning, religion and belief tend to explain specific phenomena. In fact, “a belief system need have no basis in reality so long as it consistently provides adequate explanations” (Usó-Doménech and Nescolarde-Selva, 2016, p. 148). Other essential characteristics of religion include personal commitment, a variation of certitude, long lifespan, and arbitrary boundaries. Moreover, researchers remark that religion relies on “evaluative and affective components,” as well as “psychological mechanisms such as cognitive congruence” (Usó-Doménech and Nescolarde-Selva, 2016, p. 148). Thus, the features of religion ensure their effective functioning within societies.
Furthermore, one must keep in mind that freedom of religion in the modern world has naturally resulted in the development of numerous alternative belief systems. The state and mainstream religions usually condemn these systems. The alternative beliefs may rely on the mixture of folkloric spirituality, such as Santeria, or novel ideas and social movements, such as Pastafarianism. Besides, the scholars refer to ideology as a specific type of belief system. In this context, Usó-Doménech and Nescolarde-Selva (2016) mention the historical examples of “Marx’s Communist Manifesto and Hitler’s Mein Kampf” (p. 151). As a result, these alternative belief systems are also capable of directly influencing the behavior of social groups by providing deontological norms, prescriptions, and prescriptions.
Identify different types of religious organizations
People sharing a religious belief usually belong to a particular religious organization. The reason for the emergence and development of religious organizations stems from the inherent nature of a human being as a social animal. Indeed, the process of social grouping is an integral part of any society. In this context, sociologists differentiate between several types of religious organisations, namely, the churches, denominations, and sects (Religious organisations: sects, cults, and denominations, 2017). According to this classification, churches aspire to establish a monopoly over the truth. Moreover, churches are the basis for an official religion in a particular country. Thus, the association between this type of organisation and the state is apparent. This type of religious organisations has a well-defined hierarchy and a specific set of rules and regulations.
By contrast, sects are smaller organisations that withdrew from a church to suggest an alternative religious practice. Similar to churches, sects also claim a monopoly over the truth. However, they usually have a charismatic leader rather than a bureaucratic, hierarchical structure (Religious organisations: sects, cults, and denominations, 2017). Therefore, a sect can rapidly decline since it strongly relies on its leader. Besides, sects may not have close links to the state and do not enjoy its support. A sect often demands significant sacrifices and commitment from its members.
Yet another type of religious organisations is the denomination. This type naturally follows from sects, which turn into denominations when they last more than one generation and become more formal and established (Religious organisations: sects, cults, and denominations, 2017). For instance, such Christian organisations as the Methodists and the Calvinists at first withdrew from the mainstream, but gradually denominations. Hence, the denomination is a transitional form between churches and sects. Consequently, denominations have more state support, but they are smaller than churches. They are less bureaucratised than churches and do not claim a monopoly over the truth. For instance, the Baptists represent such a case. It is also necessary to point out that this classification is by no means rigid or definitive as pertains to particular religions. For example, Catholicism is a dominant church in Spain or Italy, whereas it fits the denomination typology in the UK.
Explain the main features of at least two theories on the relationship between religion and society
Sociological discourse on religion and belief usually distinguishes between three major theories: approaches of Karl Marx (1818–1883), Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), and Max Weber (1864–1920). These theories are considered classical sociological approaches to religion, and each of them has specific distinctive features. For instance, according to the Marxist theory, religion functions as “a camera obscura, which distorts human perceptions of social and material worlds” (Rogers and Konieczny, 2018, p. 2). Furthermore, religion provides a form of comfort that can alleviate people’s suffering from alienation, hence Marx’s famous comparison of religion to opium. Marx argued that capitalist societies need to overcome the unequal social relations and thus eliminate alienation, which in turn will make religion needless. In other words, the Marxist negative interpretation of religion largely relies on the issues of social inequality and increased stratification of the society.
Durkheim defined religion as a practice of attributing sacred features to an inherently ordinary object. Hence, religious beliefs stem from practices of vesting a symbolic meaning and a specific purpose in the initially profane phenomena and processes under a particular societal influence (Little, 2016). For Durkheim, religion performs the function of social cohesion, as it acts as a means that consolidates people in a community. As one can observe, Durkheim considered religion as a prerequisite for social sustainability (Laluddin, 2016). The fundamental purpose of religion is to satisfy the social needs of an individual.
Max Weber also discussed the relationship between social class and religion. However, according to the Weberian approach, “religion and the economic sphere are mutually constitutive” (Rogers and Konieczny, 2018, p. 5). Moreover, Weber believed that religion is an essential element of social change. The scholar studied the transition from traditional and inherently anti-materialist Christian values to the Protestant concepts in certain countries, which contributed to the development of capitalist societies and highly successful business frameworks. For instance, the Calvinist doctrine of “inner-worldly asceticism” played an essential role in the modern capitalism (Rogers and Konieczny, 2018, p. 5). Unlike Catholics, Protestants did not regard tangible wealth, personal achievement, and profit as sins anymore, whereas persistent work and thrift became the primary virtues. According to Weber, the capitalist ideology flourished, and the new world order emerged as a result of this religious impact.
Examine research evidence on religion and belief in a contemporary society
In contemporary society, sociologists usually apply three modern paradigms. These theoretical perspectives also provide different perspectives as to the role of religion and belief. For instance, functionalism postulates that religion “serves several functions in society, including answers to spiritual mysteries, offering emotional comfort, and creating a place for social interaction and social control” (Introductory sociology, 2019, p. 379). According to functionalists, religion and society are interdependent concepts. Moreover, religion is an essential instrument of social networking and support for people sharing similar views and values. Symbolic interactionism is another popular theory nowadays. This perspective on religion postulates that “our world is socially constructed,” therefore, religion and belief become sacred only as soon as people consider them such (Introductory sociology, 2019, p. 380). Interactionists study the communicative purpose of such symbols, and the way they convey religious values between the believers. Conflict theory is one more relevant theory in modern society. The adherents of this approach consider religion an institution that helps maintain unequal social patterns of behaviour.
Identify and explain any similarities and differences between two or more theories and studies
As one can observe, the three classical sociological theories are quite different in their interpretation of religion. The Marxist theory considers religion as an artificial capitalistic phenomenon, required for people’s coping with social oppression. Durkheim believed that religion ensures the consistency of human behaviour and consolidation of communities, and thus it is an essential prerequisite for the society’s existence as such. At the same time, for Weber, religion is a robust social trigger of society’s transformations, and the impact of religion on the economic and social image of contemporary society is significant. However, these theories are similar in recognising the significance of religion in the society. Indeed, religion can exert a strong social impact on the community and its members, defining the directions for further development and behaviour. In other words, all three approaches postulate a close association between religion and society.
Evaluate evidence on religion and belief
Both modern theories of functionalism and symbolic interactionism derive from Durkheim’s approach, which defined religion by their functions in society and asserted that societies endow objects with sacred meanings. However, it is necessary to admit that sometimes beliefs can acquire an extremist “out-group” toward specific groups of people. In this context, the Inquisition and the anti-Semitic groups are vivid examples of such a distorted manipulative capability of beliefs. Indeed, any strong belief can be both highly beneficial and detrimental when achieving its extremist points. The evidence on religion and belief from the standpoint of symbolic interactionism can be found in such significant religious symbols as the cross in Christianity, which is a powerful image and the result of social convention. As one can easily observe, the contemporary paradigm of conflict theory stems from the Marxist positions as to inequality and the oppressive role of religion in society. In the framework of this theory, one can also distinguish the feminist perspective, which focuses primarily on gender inequality and women’s role in the religious institutes (Little, 2016). Indeed, most churches and denominations nowadays still demonstrate male dominance. The evidence from this standpoint is observed in such notions as the caste system in India or the Vatican’s abundance and wealth as a means to justify social inequality.
Give a sociological analysis of changes in religion and its relationship to contemporary society
Contemporary society undergoes several crucial changes in its attitude to religion. Some of them were quite expected and even welcomed in classical sociology, whereas other could not be predicted. It is natural that technological progress and scientific advances have exerted a well-marked impact on religion and belief. Whatever the case, even in today’s world, these phenomena still continue to occupy an essential place in our lives, adjusting to the modern context and people’s demands.
Outline key changes in patterns of religious participation and belief
First of all, one must mention the process of secularisation of the communities. It involves “religious disaffiliation,” that is, “leaving the religious tradition” (Fenelon and Danielsen, 2016, p. 49). As a result, “the population of individuals with no religious affiliation” has significantly increased, especially over the 20th century (Fenelon and Danielsen, 2016, p. 56). However, secularisation is not the only change that religion undergoes in contemporary society. Globalisation is another critical process in the modern world, related to religion. In this context, “issues of religion and politics are no longer confined to one locality: they become items of global concern” (Rowe, 2016, para. 2). As a result, sociologists believe that religion and religious organisations can become important actors in global civil society. Furthermore, globalisation naturally involves the increasing pluralism of religions and beliefs. It is also necessary to point out that the secularity of the community may vary, for example, at a certain age. For instance, Silverstein and Bengtson (2018) found increased religiosity in a sample of baby-boomers during the period of their transition from late-middle to early old age. Therefore, the social attitude toward religion may be different depending on various factors.
Yet another essential novelty is the introduction of digital religious technologies. In fact, “online religious spaces and practices” have become an integral part of the modern digital culture, and this change significantly expands the possibilities and outreach of religion in society (Campbell and Evolvi, 2020, p. 5). Moreover, the concept of religious socialisation is also becoming increasingly relevant (Klingenberg. and Sjö, 2019). In particular, this tendency involves “an interactive process through which social agents influence individuals’ religious beliefs and understandings” (Klingenberg. and Sjö, 2019, p. 165). In other words, religious socialisation aims to provide people with an opportunity to implement their religious preferences. Hence, all these recent changes facilitate religion’s crucial function in satisfying an individual’s social needs.
Discuss the social significance of these changes, with reference to sociological theories
It is necessary to mention that Marx, Weber, and Durkheim predicted the decline of religion in society. They regarded it as an inevitable consequence of modernisation and scientific advance (Little, 2016). In particular, Durkheim asserted that religions and beliefs represent the capacity of a society (Laluddin, 2016). Therefore, the decline of religion stands for the weakening of society. For Marx, religion is a needless tool for manipulation, which people must undermine. Thus, in classical sociology, the secularisation of the communities and the decline of religion are natural phenomena. As one can observe, the classical theories do not always consistently reflect the contemporary social context. For instance, Weber’s approach is also not entirely applicable to the current situation. Modern sociologists often criticise Weber’s interpretation of Protestantism and capitalism (Rogers and Konieczny, 2018). In particular, his ideas may be correct for specific European countries at the age of Protestant movements. However, they cannot be unconditionally applied for young countries in the 21st century and may become a cause of misinterpretation.
Thus, the sociological approach to religion and belief demonstrates that these phenomena are integral parts of society at any stage of its development. The theories and paradigms in the sociology of religion drastically differ from its negative interpretation to functional performance and its impact on social change. At the same time, they share the common ground, admitting an influential role of religion in any community.
Reference List
Campbell, H. A. and Evolvi, G. (2020) ‘Contextualizing current digital religion research on emerging technologies’, Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies, 2, pp. 5–17.
Fenelon, A. and Danielsen, S. (2016) ’Leaving my religion: understanding the relationship between religious disaffiliation, health, and well-being’, Social Science Research, 57, pp. 49–62.
Introductory sociology (2019) Web.
Klingenberg, M. and Sjö, S. (2019) ‘Theorizing religious socialization: a critical assessment’, Religion, 49(2), pp. 163–178.
Laluddin, H. (2016) ‘A review of three major sociological theories and an Islamic perspective’, International Journal of Islamic Thought, 10, pp. 8–26.
Little, W. (2016) Introduction to Sociology: 2nd Canadian Edition. Web.
Religious organisations: sects, cults, and denominations (2017) Web.
Rogers, M. and Konieczny, M. E. (2018) ‘Does religion always help the poor? Variations in religion and social class in the west and societies in the global south’, Palgrave Communications, 4(73), pp. 1–11.
Rowe, P. S. (2016) ‘Religious movements and religion’s contribution to global civil society’, E-International Relations. Web.
Silverstein, M. and Bengtson, V. L. (2018) ‘Return to religion? Predictors of religious change among baby-boomers in their transition to later life’, Journal of Population Ageing, 11(1), pp. 7–21.
Usó-Doménech, J. L. and Nescolarde-Selva, J. (2016) ‘What are Belief Systems?’, Foundations of Science, 21, pp. 147–152.