1165 samples of this type
The elenchus is a method of discussing matters presented by Socrates. It consists of several stages, which include asking questions, presenting logical contradictions as per the answers, and insisting on combined efforts in pursuing the truth. In other words, one using this approach starts with claiming doubts regarding the opponent’s...
Introduction Daoism, a philosophy that originated in the 6th century BCE China, has significantly influenced China’s cultural beliefs and religion and most other Asian countries. The popularity of this philosophy has increased worldwide and continues to capture the attention of scholars and philosophers in its application in various fields, ranging...
Moral relativism is a philosophical position according to which moral or ethical provisions do not, in fact, reflect universal moral truths. However, this kind of relativism does not deny the truth – it merely affirms its relativity. The adepts of moral relativism state that humans are not omniscient, and history...
Introduction Representing a peculiar interpretation of the trial that Socrates faced after being accused of multiple wrongdoings, including the corruption of young minds, Plato’s “Apology” can be considered one of the most accurate accounts of the described events. In his work, particularly, in the passages that address the accusation of...
Introduction Decision-making in various situations depends on the paradigm a person uses to analyze the results of their actions and choices. Under these conditions, there are numerous theories that might be applicable to various situations to determine their nature and outcomes. For instance, consequentialism is a paradigm implying that the...
Sometimes, people find it problematic to choose and take moral responsibility for their choice. In the analyzed case, a friend laments having been forced by a parent to learn to play the flute instead of the violin, which they find more interesting. This case can be considered from the perspective...
Centering the importance of utility as the foundation for decision-making, Kant’s ethical theory is an important framework for addressing complex moral dilemmas. In turn, the Categorical Imperative as a crucial part of the specified perspective allows dissecting major ethical problems and solving them by examining the utility of the proposed...
Han Fei was one of the leading theorists of the Legalism school in Ancient China. The main work of Han Fei titled “Han Fei-Tzu” includes the main idea that the treatise is devoted to analyzing state-building and the art of statecraft. Han Fei was a supporter of creating a centralized...
Introduction Ideologies of various levels and degrees of influence on people exist and compete with each other in it. One of their leading ideologies at the moment is liberalism. In connection with the frequently arising issues related to the rights and freedoms of citizens, various points of view have been...
Introduction Different religions have unique views on what happens to people after physical death. The nature of immortality of the human soul is an intriguing topic in the philosophy of religion, and numerous scholars have addressed this question, including Saint Thomas Aquinas. As a renowned philosopher and Catholic priest, Saint...
Happiness is a sufficient and perfect that of human beings. Aristotle argues that there are different lives people tend to consider happiness. The types of lives stated by Aristotle include the life of political action, the life of money-making and gratification, and contemplation or philosophical life study. People appreciate all...
The purpose of a true philosopher is to rise above bodily, simple pleasures because they are empty and insignificant. He is not interested in everyday life, wealth, nobility of origin, and various amusements. Socrates is an example of a true philosopher because he never sought to please other people and...
According to Harari, the Cognitive revolution was what actually separated Homo Sapiens from other species. He defines it as the emergence of new ways of thinking and communicating (Harai, 25). In this sense, it became “the point when history declared its independence from biology,” meaning that humanity developed according to...
Aristotle gives a fairly broad meaning to friendship, giving numerous and varied examples. For instance, one type of friendship is care for the elderly (Aristotle. 142). The philosopher also notes that parents “feel it for offspring” and vice versa, meaning friendship also encompasses love between relatives (Aristotle. 142). To summarize,...
Introduction Philosophy has often been criticized for its lack of practical utility. Indeed, some scientists and their followers maintain that most of the philosophical questions, especially the most basic ones that have been researched for centuries, are still unanswered. As a result, metaphysical, ontological, and existential endeavors are seen as...
Understanding differences in philosophical approaches, as well as their nature, is essential for gaining insight into the key premises of specific philosophies and teachings. Although cultural specifics play a vital role in the development of said differences in philosophical approaches, other factors may also be at play. However, despite the...
One of the greatest American philosophers of the 19th century, Willian James, believes that religion is closely related to psychology. James’s theory is based on the fact that every person has psychological needs, including the need for attachment, control, pleasure, and self-development. At first sight, it seems that these needs...
Both ancient and medieval authors, from Plato to Aquinas, demonstrated interest in the matters of metaphysics. At the same time, their approach to the subject and the ideas they proposed and entertained differed sharply. Unlike Ancient philosophy, driven purely by the love of intellectual pursuit, medieval philosophy existed under an...
Freedom is defined in different ways; however, the most common meaning is the ability to act without the interference of other people. Several philosophers have tried to have varied opinions on the aspect of freedom, but they usually agree that external forces influence the freedom of people. Over the past...
Introduction With the development of scientific knowledge as well as technology that have given answers to many questions and provided outstanding opportunities for exploration and invention, beliefs began to outlive their usefulness. It would not be reasonable, however, to consider religion as a phenomenon obsolete; rather, it needs adapting to...
Introduction Various concepts of human freedom are different from each other in few events. Some human choices are the results of the freedom that they possess. Additionally, these ideas are both non-theistic and theistic, including compatibilism, incompatibilism, libertarianism, and determinism. Freedom is the procedure of selecting or determining a set...
Renaissance Humanism Definition Renaissance humanism refers to an intellectual movement characterized by a revitalized interest in the classical world and studies that did not focus on religion but what it is to be humans. It is traced to have originated from 14th-century Italy, and its pioneers comprised authors such as...
Hume’s analysis is a complex concept directed to understand the relationship between cause and effect. In his view, we enhance our knowledge of matter because of understanding its causes. However, our understanding of the cause of the matter is limited; therefore, we cannot fully accept the nature of events. The...
Martin Heidegger is one of the most significant philosophers of the 20th century. He made an outstanding contribution to the development of existential theories and is a well-known representative of German philosophy. Studying death as a philosophical matter played a considerable role in the establishment of his ideas. He viewed...
Introduction Randolph Frederick Pausch was a professor of computer science at Carnegie Mellon University. He was given a terminal diagnosis of three to six months after being found with pancreatic cancer. The concept of death is brought out in the lecture as Pausch shows how people can react to death...
Most influential topic covered in the course The topic that completely changed my mindset is the arguments of God’s existence. The issue presented in the topic evaluated that every problem requires a complex revision. Considering an argument in seclusion from other views could be irrelevant because discussing such a complicated...
Immanuel Kant is a philosopher who tried to understand how people can be good and kind – outside the influence and persuasion of traditional religion. The philosopher was born in 1724 in the Baltic town of Königsberg. Categorical Imperatives are the principles that Kant defined by their morality and level...
Throughout history, literary writers, psychologists, scientists, and philosophers tried to define the word ‘love.’ According to Gottman and Gottman (2017), love is not a single concept but a process that constitutes three stages. In this theory, the initiation of love is triggered by neurotransmitters, and then a person gradually builds...
Introduction The meaning of life is a question that has lingered in the minds of philosophers and other people alike for generations. While some take a positive approach, praising all the joys and experiences that come with existence, others maintain that it is suffering and pain that define it. In...
Cognition of the human essence is one of the most complex philosophical issues that has been regularly raised and is being raised by various scholars. To understand what a person is, philosophers have resorted to a variety of techniques, using comparisons. René Descartes (1996), in his work Meditations on first...
Introduction There are many ethical approaches to charity and altruistic behavior that state how individuals should embark on helping others, whether any kind of help is necessary, and to what extent. Thus, such theories as utilitarianism and libertarianism present opposing views on charitable behavior and whether individual members of society...
The topic of the absurd has been an ultimate ground for philosophical debates and discussions for many centuries. The main issue considered under this theme is the connection between human life and its absurdity. Nagel, in his work, investigates a concern about the inescapable absurdity of human lives and analysis...
The concept of justice is complicated and nebulous, and its exact nature has been the subject of numerous debates throughout millennia. In general, it is considered to be an impartial decision-making agency that can make and enforce decisions that are regarded as virtuous. One of its most important aspects is...
The Last Days of Socrates is one of the most underestimated works written by the world-known ancient Greek philosopher Plato. Modern scholars frequently address the other parts of Plato’s dialogues; however, The Last Days of Socrates is central to the philosophical tradition of Plato. After all, Socrates was the mentor...
Introduction Political theory is the study of political ideas like democracy, power, and justice that are used in understating political practices and institutions. Politics form the basis of our day-to-day life, where politicians are seen to be chasing their view of self-worth and urge to show their leadership skills. Rites...
Summary Rene Descartes is a French philosopher and scientist with a complicated life situation and tough childhood. However, Rene was not doomed to the difficult life of the late sixteenth century Rene Descartes – the most important philosophical ideas from the Meditations on the first philosophy Rene Descartes is a...
End-of-life controversies exist in modern American society because not all people are ready to accept their beloved ones’ deaths, relying on their cultural and religious beliefs. In the case under analysis, NK is a 32-year-old patient who remains comatose with no brain activity during the next 24 hours after losing...
The General Problem The problem of non-existence remains a fundamental logical and philosophical problem. When people think, they always think about something that exists or does not. It is peculiar that there still can be falsehoods and truths about something non-existent. Although the latter is dependent on what really exists,...
For Aristotle and his followers, virtue is not a simple term connected to positive levels of morality in a human being. In Aristotelian ethics, virtue is known as a “Golden Mean,” “the intermediate position between two extremes or vices” (Lawhead, 2014, p. 89). The philosopher does not provide a concrete...
Introduction Studying the relationship between financial well-being and personal happiness is an essential aspect that can reveal people’s preferences and views on whether a large income directly correlates with a positive attitude or not. Selected articles address this topic and offer relevant findings and reasoning. In her research Do We...
Skepticism Skepticism is the belief that human knowledge is fundamentally lacking in some way, which in turn undermines the conclusions people reach. As Vaughn notes, there are multiple schools of thought that adhere to this view, differentiated based on the reason for the purported lack of knowledge (276). Some question...
Introduction The history of the church is always an interesting subject, especially during and after the protestant reformation. Martin Luther (1483-1546) can be regarded as the founder not only of the present protestant church but also the modern society. This is because of the many practices he rejected, including the...
Due to the fact that a particular unified theory of education is absent in pedagogical science, we should talk about a paradigmatic approach. In many ways, paradigms of philosophy have become the basis of theories and paradigms of education. According to the approach, there are several paradigms that allow characterizing...
Violence in Modern Society The daily living of human lives is coupled with numerous challenges that impair their wellbeing. Violence is one factor that affects individuals’ quality of life and makes it not worth living. Several philosophers, including Martin Luther King, Jr., Hannah Arendt, and Viktor Frankl, suggested various ways...
Ethics often asks questions of choice. In the analyzed story, there is a choice of a man who has committed a betrayal, but no one will know about it except if he personally tells. In the story, the ethical dilemma of Utilitarianism vs. Deontology appears. In the case of Utilitarianism,...
Introduction These days, education presents a pressing concern, as a perspective on this regard has changed dramatically. Some people are opposed to the traditional system, claiming that it restricts students’ individuality and prevents from developing their interest. They believe that such an approach cannot provide children with relevant knowledge and...
The concept of will to power is central to the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche. According to Nietzsche, the will to power is an integral part of all life phenomena, which cannot be squeezed into the framework of a philosophical category since it is broader than any category. According to the...
Rene Descartes was not the first philosopher to show concern over dreaming as an epistemological issue. However, his treatment of the matter popularized it and occasioned its development, over the years, into a Cartesian argument. Today, epistemologists agree that people must defeat this argument for “knowledge of the external world”...
Introduction Although socialism, capitalism, and communism offer various benefits to society, libertarianism’s strong valuation of individual freedoms, distributive justice, and the protection against state authority interference makes it the ideal form of government. The ideal societies are characterized by free citizens with equal and inalienable rights coexisting within an egalitarian...
Introduction Omniscience is the state of having full or maximum knowledge and is regarded as an essential feature of an entirely perfect being. Many philosophers have considered this trait to be possessed and attributed by a divine-like God who is believed to have the necessary knowledge, complete knowledge, tenseless knowledge,...
Phaedo is a dialogue by Plato, which explores the subject of the immortality of the soul. It contains Socrates’ reflections on life and death expressed in the conversation with his friends in the last hours before his death. One of the arguments for the immortality of the soul provided by...
Moral obligations do not simply purport to provide supremely authoritative reasons. They are also what we are responsible to one another for doing, what members of the moral community have the authority as such to demand that we do by holding ourselves accountable second personally. Some define moral obligation as...
Critical thinking is one of the fundamental concepts of philosophy. Used to describe the process of objectively identifying and analyzing events to meet one’s goals in the most efficient way possible. The ability is developed through training and learning different things, as well as being conscious of one’s thought process....
Aging is a significant part of all human beings reflecting the organic changes that occur, but also sparkling cultural and communal conventions. Aging is a multidimensional process of physical, psychological and social changes that occur in all human beings. Aging has made a significant impact on the community or society....
Introduction Different philosophers and religious analysts have approached the existence of God from diverse perspectives. Some remain skeptical while others have succeeded in providing strong arguments to describe the nature of God and the universe. Some of these great thinkers include Aquinas, Kant, and Reiner. Using the views of these...
Personal Purpose As humans, everyone needs personal philosophy; otherwise, there will be a risk of wandering in information and making random stimuli, with no impact on individual’s long-term goals. Personal life philosophy offers the overall attitude and vision towards both life and its purpose; therefore, without the essence of philosophy,...
Philosophy is an integral part of every person’s worldview and outlook on life which they espouse and through which they interpret various phenomena. Ethics is inherent to any philosophical perspective since it constitutes an element which guides people in their actions and interactions with others. Utilitarianism and deontology are two...
The phenomenon of the imperative is a rather well-known philosophical subject. Having been coined by Immanuel Kant, the idea of an imperative as the concept that defines one’s decision-making has been accepted and used widely in philosophy, specifically, in Kantianism (Longuenesse, 2020). Although the two imperatives, namely, the categorical and...
By stating that man is weak and deficient, Khaldun establishes the limits of his own knowledge and, consequently, of the book. He contrasts his awareness with the God’s, claiming the superiority of the latter. The author restricts his explorations to the Maghrib region specifically because of his inability to portray...
Introduction Philosophy is usually understood in various diverse ways by people or philosophers of different backgrounds. However, these different philosophers aim at achieving some understanding, awareness and gaining some intelligence, to think, support and argue rationally on various essential matters. Moore & Bruder, 2005 philosophically offered a succinct definition of...
Marxists’ attitude towards the concept of criminal punishment cannot be discussed outside of how Marxist paradigm theorizes crime. In its turn, this theorization reflects the conventions of the Marxist theory of a class struggle. According to Marxists, the pace of a historical progress is being defined by an ongoing process...
Melissa McBay Merritt is a philosopher whose works mainly concern Kant’s philosophy, history of ethics, and modern impact on society. She examines how moral rationalism can be implemented in contemporary ethics and what effect Kant’s legacy caused in the structure of today’s morality and the human mind. This essay considers...
“The Allegory of the Cave” describes a human community, forced to live in a dark cave. Shackles limit the prisoners’ movements so that they can see only the things in front of them. Their perception of the world is limited to the shadows they can see on the walls and...
Introduction Many philosophers have investigated the relationship between the mind and the brain. These investigations date back to the days of Plato, Aristotle, and a few other philosophers. Historically, before the scientific understanding of the mind and the brain, theology informed the understanding of the relationship between the mind and...
The Nursing Profession during William James Era William James was an American philosopher and a psychologist. He was considered the founder of the pragmatism school of thought and functional psychology. He was born in a wealthy family in January 1842. William James made a massive contribution to the field of...
Introduction The dilemma of using any means necessary for achieving noble goals has always been prevalent in philosophical and political discussions. Every country has examples of engaging in authoritarian measures to accomplish a higher objective, yet the implications are best illustrated by biographies of people who had to choose what...
Introduction John Locke’s political philosophies have influenced a number of theories globally and have inspired many philosophers. His work was based mainly on the hypothesis of the social contract. He strongly suggested and believed that human nature was structured in a manner that allowed people to be selfish. This, according...
Rene Descartes’ argument Rene Descartes proposed a novel way of acquiring knowledge through the use of his “doubting methodology” (Moore & Bruder, 2008). He said that skepticism enabled him to know the truth. The doubting methodology was comprised of the dream conjecture and the evil demon conjecture. It is possible...
Introduction The ethics of human relationships is the object of many philosophical teachings and doctrines. At the same time, specific issues and topics are controversial and acute since they are difficult to discuss within the framework of one particular theory due to distinctive views on causes and effects. As such...
The Cristian Perspective Despite the advent of science, religion and the Christian faith still play a prominent role in the field of healthcare. In the medical industry, care professionals are responsible not only for ensuring the physical but mental well-being of their patients as well. Christian principles can provide the...
Introduction “If a tree falls in the forest and there is no one around to hear it, does it make a sound?” is a classical philosophical puzzle. It is sometimes attributed to George Berkeley; however, the philosopher did not discuss the question directly (Campbell, 2014). The puzzle concerns the nature...
Various influential philosophers have considered the idea that the self as continuously independent of other individuals, making it fully autonomous. Mason Cooley poetically presented this argument by stating, “The true self is the part of us that does not change when circumstances do” (Velasquez 99). Conventionally, this belief was widely...
In Apology 28b-30c, Socrates admits that he is not ashamed of pursuing a life that has not put him at risk of early death. The philosopher’s convictions hinge on the rational premise that it is worse to “live as a bad man” and not consider justice when taking action (28b)....
Introduction Friedrich Nietzsche, the outstanding German philosopher of the 19th century, left behind a rich academic heritage and became one of the founders of irrationalism as a philosophical doctrine. One of his well-known works is Thus Spake Zarathustra, the story about a wandering preacher who promotes the doctrine of the...
Introduction John Locke (1632-1704) is one of the most influential classical democratic theorists whose ideas have defined the modern theory of democracy. John Locke is famously known as the father of classical liberalism. His writings on democracy are still influential in modern society, especially in the United States (Forstron, 2010)....
Introduction For quite a long period of history, issues related to death and dying were within the scope of the church’s professional competences. Representatives of Christian denominations explained the afterlife to the common people and took care of the dying. With the development of a natural-scientific view, the monopoly of...
By definition, emotion is: “an affective state of consciousness in which joy, sorrow, fear, hate, or the like, is experienced, as distinguished from cognitive and volitional states of consciousness” (“Emotion” par. 1). Emotions most often conduce us to a conclusion, where we agree or disagree with a certain fact, and...
On the one hand, the concept of “enlightenment” can be understood as a specific historical era – for example, it is about enlightened absolutism – and on the other, a certain moral, legal, and social program. This possibility of an ambiguous interpretation of the term “enlightenment” determines the originality of...
One of the central branches of philosophy studying the nature of being is called ontology, and the question of being itself is one of the major topics in philosophy. The formation of this discipline began precisely with the study of the nature of being. Ancient Indian, Chinese, and Greek philosophy...
Social justice is generally assumed to be necessary for any progressive society. However, it is unclear how to define justice, and many philosophers have been working on the problem since ancient times. The current paper reviews some essential ideas of justice and reflects on how these ideas are relevant to...
Socrates and Jesus of Nazareth are very similar characters that can be both perceived as prophets from different perspectives. Socrates and Jesus were significant and powerful figures due to the divine strength they obtained (Wright 374). Socrates was told by an oracle that he was the wisest of men and,...
Philosophy makes an attempt to gain a better understanding of the world through questioning the established traditions and the preconceived notions people often hold. Many of the questions formed in this process do not have a concrete answer and serve as a way for an individual to think about any...
Transcendentalists, such as Emerson and Thoreau, put a great deal of emphasis on one’s individualism. For example, in the case of the latter philosopher, he promoted the concept of self-reliance as the basis of independent thought and ideas. I think that the term is highly important because people, as social...
In modern political culture, libertarianism has acquired new supporters and has taken on a new existence. The philosophical underpinnings of libertarianism are essential to discuss because they can point out the limitations of the ethical system in the present context. To explore the issue, it was chosen to focus on...
At the turn of the 20th century, America began to see a surge in religions of healthy-mindedness that would eventually change the landscape of modern medicine. Taken from William James’ pivotal lecture “The Religion of Healthy-Mindedness,” this distinction of American religions would provide the groundwork for an entire genre of...
One of the central and widely discussed questions of neuroscience and philosophy is whether we have free will. Scientists’ opinions about what free will is, and even about the reality of its existence, are very contradictory. The idea of free will can be conveyed as the ability for self-control, and...
Torture has always been a tool employed by people to extract vital information from individuals that possess important knowledge or simply humiliate them into submission and despair. Historically, torture was used as a means to receive confessions from criminals and witnesses (Hoadley et al. 248). Only recently did it disappear...
Morality is a complex phenomenon, and philosophers have debated its nature for a long time. Many theories examine ethics and how people make ethical decisions. It is especially interesting to discuss how people make choices when they involve the interests of people they are connected to in a meaningful way....
In his well-known work titled “The Allegory of the Cave”, Plato makes use of diverse means of expression to teach a moral lesson regarding the relativity of everything that an individual may perceive as common truths. The philosopher uses a deep cave with almost no light as an allegory for...
Christians believe that spirituality and ethics are extrinsic to a person and immutable, as they come from God. Is there truth beyond science? (n.d.) highlights this reliance on knowledge that cannot be confirmed by humans as a characteristic that it shares with science. This purported existence of a singular set...
Immanuel Kant was the German philosopher of the eighteenth century, whose ideas argued time, morality, space, and nature. One of his principal works was The Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, which categorized humans’ primary moral duties and discussed their impact on their lives. Kant’s statements rejected happiness as a...
Modern advances in manufacturing, space travel, and science perpetuate immense corporate appetites of global companies that continue to abuse the planet’s natural resources for short-term financial benefit. The dystopian society is what many modern thinkers predict to come at some point in the future. The Space Merchants by Cyril Kornbluth...
Introduction The term ethics has a variety of definitions. It can be viewed as a branch in philosophy that tries to define moral notions like defining wrong and right (Bookchin, 2004). It can also be defined as the science of individual obligation (Bentham, 1999). Nature of law assumes that law...
Introduction The physical tangibility of material reality and the extent to which it is dependent on the personal perceptions of an individual is, perhaps, one of the most contentious topics that have been discussed throughout the history of philosophy. In the famous dilemma of a falling tree, the question of...
Aristotle inspired many philosophers and thinkers with his ideas of how the universe functions. One of the people who built on the ideas of Aristotle was Aquinas, a well-renounced theologian. The similarities between Aristotle and Aquinas’s views on the universe are in their interpretation of knowledge and some views of...
Introduction Moral issues often appear in philosophy, literature, and even politics, since morality forms the basis of human activity. Morality is a set of norms of behavior adopted in a particular society or the mind of a specific person. People acquire morality in the process of life, and it can...
Jean-Paul Sartre Jean-Paul Sartre is one of the most known French existentialists of the twentieth century. His ideas were expressed in numerous works related not only to philosophical writings but also to plays (Hayim, 2017). The main problems that he discussed were connected to the notion of freedom as a...
Introduction Scientific progress has taken different shapes over the past centuries, including the discovery of new ideas or phenomena, the emergence of theories, the promotion of analytical methods and procedures, and technological advancements. Due to the nature of these processes and how they take shape, different scholars and philosophers have...
The Divine Command theory can be interpreted in two ways. From the Euthyphro Dilemma point of view, morality is either created by God or exists without him and is related by him to people (Carneades.org, 2013). If God is the creator of morality, anything, even murder, can be viewed as...
Introduction The evaluation of the same religion from two different positions makes it possible to assess the perception of individual concepts and dogmas and describe specific approaches to the interpretation of relevant opinions. As a background for analysis, Protestantism as a branch of Christianity will be used, and etic and...
Athens held the trial of Socrates to determine whether he was indeed guilty of asebeia (impiety) against the pantheon of the city and the corruption of youth. If Plato’s account of Socrates’ life in Apology is historically accurate, then it is safe to assume that Socrates shied away from religious...
Introduction Humans have tried to explain the nature of the world around them for centuries, but they have never reached an agreement. Some believe that their lives are predetermined, others proclaimed themselves the only masters of their decisions, and the third group prefers the combination of those factors. One of...
The Confessions is the general title for thirteen autobiographic stories of Saint Augustine, dated 397-398 A.D. They contain the narrative about Saint Augustine’s life and his way of conversion to Christianity. Being the first detailed autobiographic in European literature, the book has served as a literary example for Christian writers...
European and a number of other contemporary societies may be called a direct or indirect product of ancient Greek culture. In ancient Greek philosophy profound ideas about the relationship between knowledge and opinion, truth and logical error, and dialectics as a method of cognition were formulated. These ideas served as...
The existence of God is a difficult question since there seems to be no way to provide hard evidence of whether He exists. Therefore, people are divided into theists who believe in God’s existence and atheists who are confident of the contrary. The strongest argument of atheists against the existence...
Introduction It is hard to disagree that the concept of time is one of the most essential and influential components of this world and individuals’ life paths. The past, present, and future are combined with some other factors and take a colossal role in shaping a person’s fate. All people...
A number of stories throughout the history of occidental societies tie the notions of desperation and isolation to the beginning of a spiritual journey. These experiences may trigger an inciting incident that would send a protagonist into the search of consolidation between their internal and external universes. Works of both...
René Descartes was a mathematician, physicist, and philosopher of the 17th century who brought revolutionary ideas regarding human existence and the truth of knowledge. What is more, his works became the base for philosophy and are quoted and evaluated even today. Many believe he was the rationalist who promoted skepticism...
Bacon (1620) was not only an excellent philosopher but also a good scientist and writer who believed in reasoning to explain various phenomenons and rejected the laws of nature that other scientists relied on. Zagorin (1991) says that Bacon lived in an age when the scientific world had come awake...
Introduction Despite many philosophical works and scientific research, it is still problematic for humanity to understand where knowledge has come from and how one receives it. Knowledge often has to do with the soul, the divine beginning, and the concept of world creation. Some philosophers, such as the empiricists John...
Kierkegaard was born in 1813 to a Danish family that adored the ways of Christianity in Copenhagen. He was the last born in a family of seven children. Kierkegaard ever lamented his old age birth that led to his suffering while young. His surname has its deriving from priesthood activity....
In the study of ethics, egoism is highly relevant since people are often faced with moral choices that require them to prioritize either their own needs or someone else’s. Most ethical theories do not consider the interests of the moral agent when offering frameworks for ethical decision-making. Instead, people are...
Socrates brought a philosophy from heaven to earth, and estranged it from nature, revealing a spiritual, metaphysical field. In the era of universal fermentation, the fluctuations of philosophical, moral, religious, and political beliefs and traditions, he pointed to human self-knowledge as the source and beginning of real knowledge and philosophy....
The civil disobedience movement was widely supported by philosophers of ancient times as well as modern thinkers. However, their views on the matter significantly differed in the way they expressed them. The two contrasting figures in philosophy related to this idea are Henry David Thoreau and Socrates, and their comparison...
Locke argued that in the ‘natural state’ the human original condition, every person had an equal right to ownership and use of natural resources that were provided by the “spontaneous hand of nature” (Locke, 2005, sect. 25). The earth was commonly owned; however, resources are not useful for human survival...
Since ancient times, numerous philosophers have dedicated their efforts to finding the right ways to become a perfect ruler. The Greek tradition, which formed bases for the political thoughts for centuries, viewed citizens’ happiness and prosperity as the highest virtues. Such ideas were later replaced with Christian morality statements, which...
There exist many debates concerning the existence of God. Atheists argue that there is no actual evidence of God’s existence. To prove their point of view, they say that He would have never allowed evil to happen if He existed. Thus, taking into consideration how many happens in the world...
Introduction For one to understand Karl Popper’s assertion that a scientific theory is not logically verifiable, it is essential to comprehend the underlying scientific philosophy from his perspective. Popper is considered unique in his outlook among other contemporary philosophers as he accepts the Humean Critique of Induction and seeks to...
Argument Critics of the Marxist approach comprehended art as a form of social production and realization. For them, it is not an intellectual, idealistic phenomenon but an instrumental social practice. A genuinely revolutionary artist, therefore, always deals not only with a work of art but also with the means of...
Marxist Theory in Fiction Various works of fiction examine Marxist notions related to ideology, historical materialism, and the concepts of dystopia/utopia. Karl Marx’s philosophy profoundly impacted the literature of the twentieth century, including Joseph Conrad’s literary work. Dialectical materialism, for instance, posits that material conditions shape a society’s order and...
The Concept of Free Will: Determinism, Compatibilism, and Libertarianism The theories of determinism, compatibilism, and libertarianism center around the notion of free will and the question of whether individuals can make free choices or their freedom are restricted by forces beyond their control. Determinism claims that all events and actions...
Introduction The work of those medical specialists who help premature babies to recover outside the womb is responsible and valued highly in the healthcare community. At the same time, the assessment of such activities may be based not only on the principles of professional ethics but also on human morality....
Plato, born in 424 B.C. Greece is an iconic philosopher, studying a wide range of subjects and being a student of the great Socrates. Plato is known for his contribution to a wide range of topics in philosophy, the centerpiece of which is considered ethics. Aristotle, born in 384 B.C....
Introduction Human beings should act and behave in accordance with the established legal systems and ethical principles. Different theorists present various views and arguments regarding the validity of natural law and its interpretation. Many modern philosophers and scholars of politics and governance reference Thomas Hobbes and John Locke for their...
People challenged its government long before the term “civil disobedience” was coined by Henry David Thoreau in 1849. In his On the Duty of Civil Disobedience, originally called Resistance to Civil Government, the author discussed the issue, providing a clear viewpoint and examples from his life. He expressed that civil...
The Problem of Error is an essential philosophical and theological question that has been a matter of debate for many centuries, especially during the Middle Ages and the early modern period. The discussion examines the reasons for human imperfection, including the error of senses, despite the existence of a perfect...
Introduction Accordingly, human beings study psychology to understand the peculiarities of a personality’s development, avoid making similar mistakes in handling and treating various psychological disorders, obtain valuable ideas to develop psychology as a science, and satisfy their natural curiosity and thirst for knowledge. Needless to say, studying psychology starts with...
Introduction Eternal life, and the value of such an experience – this question has always worried philosophers of antiquity and modernity. Besides, since it is linked with the problem of life’s meaning, the question of immortality is one of the fundamental dilemmas of philosophy. In his article Williams (2010) presents...
All scientific disciplines require sets of rules and laws, called methods, which are based on critical thinking and are essential for any research. Philosophy is not an exception here; the only difference is that while such sciences as mathematics and physics deal with specific fields of study, philosophy seeks to...
The way to a happy life was studied by philosophers from ancient times. Alain De Botton’s programs united in the series “Philosophy: A Guide to Happiness” present and discuss the views of different philosophers on various aspects of this subject. Comparing the perspectives of the thinkers, it is possible to...
Pascal’s thoughts expressed in Pensees is a philosophical work that can leave any reader frustrated and questioning whether his view on the human nature and descriptions of existing humans’ social and physical worlds is reliable and trustworthy. Pascal’s (1958) comparison of a human to the infinite is the most striking...
The idea of the categorical imperative formulated by Immanuel Kant is based on four specific principles, and the principle of ends is one of them, in addition to the principle of universalizability, the principle of humanity, and the principle of autonomy. The purpose of this paper is to explain how...
The disagreement between Hume and Kant resulted in the awakening of the latter from his dogmatic slumber since he was disturbed by Hume’s skepticism against causality. The so-called Hume’s problem was in his disbelief in cause-effect relationships due to the fact that people can see only a row of events...
Heidegger Biography Martin Heidegger, a German philosopher, was born in 1889 to a catholic family. He was raised in a Roman Catholic Church where his father served as sexton. Heidegger gained many contributions from the Catholic Church that were working tooth and nail in preparing him for the priesthood. His...
Existentialism is a popular philosophical movement in the twentieth century that is centered on the attitude toward existence. The primary principle of this philosophy is focused on the unique human existence as an irrational phenomenon. The fundamental issue of the existentialism is considered to be controversial. The existence is defined...
The issues of justice and fair state organization have attracted politicians and philosophers’ attention throughout the years and generations. Their understanding largely influences the ruling styles in every country, therefore defining the life quality and distribution of wealth in it. Among the numerous ancient interpretations in this field, it is...
Singer asserts that today it is impossible to morally vindicate the attitudes of the rich towards the poor. In the modern world, there exist a considerable number of people who live in luxury. This means that they can satisfy their basic needs and the needs of their dependants and remain...
The ancient Greeks said: “The fear of death is worse than death itself.” Did the great Socrates think about this when death inexorably approached him? Did he not think that a man should be able not only to live with dignity but also be worthy to die, opposing the fear...
Introduction The global community established a community that was meant to share a culture and some values that would enable the member states to come together and have an environment that would enable them to provide solutions to the global problems to achieve globalization (Wolf 2004). The global governance institutions...
Divine command theory was presented by John Calvin, St Augustine, and many other famous philosophers. Its followers argue that “ethical principles are simply the commands of God” (Pojman & Fieser, 2011, 188.4). The theory that appeared in the era of early Christianity and has been dramatically transformed since then has...
Introduction The purpose of this paper is to analyze a heuristic model of moral intuitions as described in the book, The Moral Psychology Handbook, by John M. Doris. To present the model, it is first necessary to identify it and explain its working principles. Models of heuristics can improve on...
Although there have been several definitions of worldview, it is evident that a world view involves a system of beliefs. It can also be defined as an individual’s perspective or attitude about the world. A worldview is a particular perception and interpretation of the world. (Hutchinson, 2013).This essay, therefore, will...
Introduction As of today, the gnoseological methodologies of Immanuel Kant and George Hegel are being strongly associated with the concept of a so-called German philosophical idealism. Nevertheless, despite the fact that this concept is now being commonly assumed as such that represents essentially the idealistic philosophy of Greco-Roman antiquity, adapted...
The influence of Socrates on the development of the philosophy could hardly be underestimated since his views provided a foundation for many philosophers to dwell upon. In this essay, one of the most fundamental works by Socrates, The Apology, will be analyzed with the aim to understand the Socrates’ attitude...
It is an outstanding article by Harry Frankfurt called ‘Alternate Possibilities and Moral Responsibility’ that makes modern philosophers think over the moral responsibilities, free will, and if they need alternative possibilities. This is exactly the case study Frankfurt addresses in his work. He depicts some kind of scenario in which...
In this paper, I will protect the statement made by Schopenhauer in the essay “On the Suffering of the World” that good is a negative quality of life from the objection that there are pleasures in life that are more than the simple absence of pain and discomfort. In his...
The Laws is Plato’s famous political dialogue. He casts light upon main political concepts such as ‘law’, ‘state’, ‘power’, ‘peace’, and others that are relevant in political philosophy in this dialogue. Plato looking for the means of creating the structure of ideal government describes one of the most important means...
Introduction Objectivism is also called philosophical realism. It claims that reality or facts do not depend on the mind of the individual and that facts do not change. The claims made are not necessarily true; they at times could be false. Ethical objectivism has to do with morals (Waller, 2008)....
Abstract As a human being, various aspects of life are instrumental when it comes to making worthwhile decision and choices. The world is awash with ideas and trends that influence a person’s capacity to respond and act. It is quite important to have a moral position and standing that puts...
Introduction Capitalism dominates the world economic system today. Even in societies like China and Cuba where advanced forms of communism have succeeded, they have been heavily influenced by capitalist tendencies. According to Chilcote (2006, p. 32), there is not even a pure form of capitalism owing to state ownership of...
